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{{About|Chaldean church in Mesopotamia Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Iran|Church of the East in India|Chaldean Syrian Church}}
{{Infobox Orthodox Church|
|show_name = Chaldean Catholic Church ܥܕܬܐ ܟܠܕܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝܬܐ ''Ecclesia Chaldaeorum Catholica''
|image = [[File:Patriarchum Babylonensis Chaldenorum.jpg|200px]]
|caption = Emblem of the [[List of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon|Chaldean Patriarchate]]
|founder = Traces ultimate origins to [[Thomas the Apostle]], [[Addai]] and [[Saint Mari|Mari]]; emerged from the [[Church of the East]] in the 3rd Century
|independence = [[Apostolic Age|Apostolic Era]]
|recognition = [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]
|primate = [[Louis Raphaël I Sako]]
|headquarters = [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]]
|territory = [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], [[Israel]], [[Egypt]], [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Greece]], [[Netherlands]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Georgia (country)]], [[Sweden]], [[United Kingdom]]

|language = [[Chaldean language|Chaldean]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnewa.org/default.aspx?ID=59&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |title=The Chaldean Catholic Church |publisher=CNEWA |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref> [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
|population = 2,500,000<ref name="CNEWA website">{{cite web
|url=http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat10.pdf
|author=Ronald Roberson
|title=The Eastern Catholic Churches 2010
|publisher=Catholic Near East Welfare Association
|accessdate=December 2010}} Information sourced from ''Annuario Pontificio'' 2010 edition</ref><ref name=cnewa.org>[http://www.cnewa.org/ecc-bodypg-us.aspx?eccpageID=59&IndexView=toc CNEWA - Chaldean Catholic Church]</ref>
|website = http://www.saint-adday.com/
}}
The '''Chaldean Catholic Church''' ({{lang-syc|ܥܕܬܐ ܟܠܕܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝܬܐ}}, ''ʿītha kaldetha qāthuliqetha''), is an [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern]] [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac]] [[Particular church#Autonomous particular Churches or Rites|particular church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], under the [[Apostolic see|Holy See]] of the [[Catholicos]]-[[Patriarch of Babylon]], maintaining [[full communion]] with the [[Bishop of Rome]] and the rest of the Catholic Church. The Chaldean Catholic Church presently comprises an estimated 2,500,000 people who are ethnic [[Chaldean people|Chaldeans]]

==Chaldean Church History==
The history of the Chaldean Church is the history of the [[Church of the East]] founded between the 1st and 2nd centuries AD in Mesopotamia [[Chaldea]] (Chaldeans ruled [[Mesopotamia]]) — represented today by at least eleven different churches, (then ruled by the successive Parthian and Sassanid Empires, where it was known by derivative names for Chaldea) — between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD. The region of Chaldea was also the birthplace of the [[Syriac language]] and [[Syriac script]], both of which remain important within all strands of [[Syriac Christianity]].

It was originally a part of [[The Church of the East]] before the 1553 consecration of [[Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa]] who entered communion with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], when it was renamed the ''Church of Mosul''. Subsequent to this, it was again renamed by Rome in 1683 as the Chaldean Catholic Church in recognition of the native Chaldean people of Mesopotamia Iraq where Father Ibrahim was raised and lived at UR of Chaldeans.

After the extensive massacres of Chaldean and other Christians by [[Tamerlane]] around 1400 AD had devastated many Chaldean bishoprics and finally destroyed the 4000 year old city of [[Nineveh]], the Church of the East — which had extended as far as [[China]], [[Central Asia]], [[Mongolia]] and [[India]] — was largely reduced to [[Mesopotamia]], its place of origin. It was followed by its core founders of [[Eastern Aramaic]] speaking ethnic [[Chaldean people|Chaldean]]s who lived largely in Mesopotamia between [[Diyarbakır|Amid (Diyarbakır)]], [[Mardin]], [[Harran]] and [[Hakkari]] in the north to [[Mosul]], [[Irbil]] and [[Kirkuk]] in the south, and from [[Salmas]] and [[Urmia]] in the east to [[Al-Hassakeh]], [[Tur Abdin]] and [[Edessa]] in the west; an area approximately encompassing ancient [[Chaldea]].

===1552: Yohannan Sulaqa===
Dissent over the hereditary succession grew until 1552, when a group of Chaldean bishops, from the northern regions of [[Amid]] and [[Salmas]], elected a priest, Mar [[Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa|Yohannan Sulaqa]], as a rival patriarch. To look for a bishop of [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] rank to consecrate him patriarch, Sulaqa traveled to the [[pope]] in Rome and entered into communion with the [[Catholic Church]], after first being refused by the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]. In 1553 he was consecrated bishop and elevated to the rank of patriarch taking the name of Mar Shimun VIII. He was granted the title of "Patriarch of the Chaldeans", and his church was named ''The Church of Mosul''.

Mar Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa returned to northern [[Mesopotamia]] in the same year and fixed his seat in [[Amid]]. Before being put to death by the radical Nestorians of the [[Church of the East]] patriarch of [[Alqosh]],<ref name="Frazee" />{{rp|57}} he ordained five metropolitan Chaldean bishops thus beginning a new ecclesiastical hierarchy: the patriarchal line known as the ''Shimun line''. The area of influence of this patriarchate soon moved from Amid east, fixing the See, after many places, in the Chaldean village of [[Qochanis]].

The connections with Rome loosened up under Sulaqa's successors: The last patriarch to be formally recognized by the Pope died in 1600, the hereditary of the office was reintroduced and, in 1692, the [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome was formally broken, with this part of the church once more rejoining the [[Church of the East]].
[[File:Chaldean Bishops worldwide.jpg|thumb|Chaldean Bishops worldwide representing the Chaldean Church led by Chaldean Cardinal Emmanuel Delly III visit the Holy Pope, The Vatican, Italy, 2013]]
{{See also|Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa}}

===1672: The ''Josephite line'' of Amid===
In 1672, 'Chaldean' Patriarchate Chaldean [[Joseph I (Chaldean Patriarch)|Mar Joseph I]], Archbishop of Amid, entered in [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome. In 1681 the [[Holy See]] granted him the title of "Patriarch of the Chaldeans deprived of its patriarch."

The 'Chaldean Catholic' arose due to a Catholic [[Latin language|Latin]] in recognition of the native Chaldean people of Mesopotamia and of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Ur Kasdim'' (according to long held Jewish tradition, the birthplace of Abraham in northern Mesopotamia) as meaning ''Ur of the Chaldees''.<ref>''Biblical Archaeology Review'', May/June 2001: Where Was Abraham's Ur? by Allan R. Millard</ref>

The 'Chaldean Catholic' is historically, usually and properly taken purely as a [[doctrinal]] and [[theological]] term for Chaldean People believers of Catholicism.<ref>Travis, Hannibal. ''Genocide in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire, Iraq, and Sudan''. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010, 2007, pp. 237-77, 293–294</ref><ref name="conference.osu.eu">http://conference.osu.eu/globalization/publ/08-bohac.pdf</ref><ref name="conference.osu.eu" /> The modern Chaldean Catholics are [[Chaldean people| Chaldeans]]<ref>Nisan, M. 2002. ''[http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/14225.html Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle for Self Expression]''. Jefferson: McFarland & Company.</ref> and originated from ancient Chaldean communities living in and indigenous to the north of Iraq/Upper Mesopotamia which was known as Chaldea from the 25th century BC until the 7th century AD.

All Joseph I's successors took the name of Joseph. The life of this patriarchate was difficult: at the beginning due to the vexations from the traditionalists, under which they were subject from a legal point of view, and later it struggled with financial difficulties due to the tax burden imposed by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] authorities.
[[File:Two Chaldean bishops ordination (Bishop Baselio Yaldo and Bishop Shaleta).jpg|thumb|Chaldean Bishops Ordination in Michigan 2015 (Bishop Yaldo and Bishop Shalita)]]
[[File:Diyarbakir P1050612 20080427130622.JPG|thumb|Chaldean Monastery, Dyar Bakir, Turkey, Established 3rd Century AD]]
Nevertheless its influence expanded from the original towns of [[Amid]] and [[Mardin]] towards the area of [[Mosul]] and the [[Nineveh plains]]. The ''Josephite line'' unified in 1830 with the Chaldean [[Alqosh]] patriarchate that in the meantime entered in [[full communion]] with Rome.

===The Alqosh Patriarchate in communion with Rome===

The largest and oldest [[episcopal see|patriarchal see]] of the Chaldean Church of the East was based at the [[Rabban Hormizd Monastery|Rabban Hormizd]] monastery of Alqosh. It spread from [[Aqrah]] up to [[Siirt|Seert]] and [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]], covering in the south the rich plain of [[Mosul]]. Already in the short period between 1610 and 1617 it entered in [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome, and in 1771 the patriarch Eliya Denkha signed a Catholic confession of faith, but no formal union resulted. When Eliya Denkha died, his succession was disputed by two cousins: Eliyya Isho-Yab, who was recognized by Rome but soon broke the communion, and [[Yohannan Hormizd]], who considered himself a Catholic.

In 1804, after Eliyya Isho-Yab's death, Yohannan Hormizd remained the only patriarch of Alqosh. There were thus two patriarchates in communion with Rome, the larger one in Alqosh, and in Amid that ruled by [[Augustine Hindi|Augustine (Yousef V) Hindi]]. Rome did not want to choose between the two candidates and granted neither the title of Patriarch, even if from 1811 it was Augustine Hindi who ruled the Church. After Hindi's death, on the July 5, 1830, Yohannan Hormizd was formally confirmed Patriarch by [[Pope Pius VIII]] with the title of "Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans."<ref name="angold">{{cite book|last=O’Mahony |first=Anthony |editor=Angold, Michael |title=Eastern Christianity |series=Cambridge History of Christianity|volume=5|year=2006|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-81113-2 |chapter=Syriac Christianity in the modern Middle East}}</ref>{{rp|528}} The merger of the patriarchates of Alqosh and Amid was completed.

===19th century: expansion and disaster===
[[File:King Faisal I with Chaldean bishops (1852 1947).jpg|thumbnail|[[Faisal I of Iraq]] with all the Chaldean bishops and the Patriarch [[Yousef VI Emmanuel II Thomas]], 1921 ]]
The following years of the Chaldean Church were marked by externally originating violence: in 1838 the monastery of [[Rabban Hormizd Monastery|Rabban Hormizd]] and the town of Alqosh was attacked by the [[Kurds]] of [[Soran Emirate|Soran]] and hundreds of Christian Chaldeans died.<ref name="Wilm">David Wilmshurst, ''The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318-1913'', Peeters Publishers, 2000 ISBN 90-429-0876-9</ref>{{rp|32}} In 1843 the Kurds started to collect as much money as they could from Chaldean villages, killing those who refused: more than 10,000 Chaldean Christians of all denominations were killed and the icons of the Rabban Hormizd monastery defaced.<ref name="Frazee" />{{rp|298}}{{Eastern Catholicism}}In 1846 the Chaldean Church was recognized by the [[Ottoman Empire]] as a '[[millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]]', a distinctive 'religious community' in the Empire, thus obtaining its civic emancipation.<ref name="angold">Michael Angold ''Eastern Christianity'', Cambridge University Press, 2006 ISBN 0-521-81113-9 pag 528</ref> The most famous patriarch of the Chaldean Church in the 19th century was [[Joseph Audo|Joseph VI Audo]] who is remembered also for his clashes with [[Pope Pius IX]] mainly about his attempts to extend the Chaldean jurisdiction over the Indian [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]. This was a period of expansion for the Chaldean Catholic Church.[[File:Church-In Basra-Iraq كنيسة في البصرة العراق.JPG|thumbnail|A [[Chaldean Catholic]] Church in [[Basra]] 2014]]In the early 20th century massacres and continuation of the [[Chaldean Genocide]] died from cold in the winter or hunger. The disaster struck mainly the regions of the Chaldean Church of the East and the Chaldean dioceses in north Chaldea (Amid, [[Siirt]] and [[Gazarta]]) were ruined (the Chaldeans metropolitans [[Addai Scher]] of [[Siirt]] and [[Philip Abraham]] of [[Gazarta]] were killed in 1915).<ref name="Wilm" />{{rp|37}}

A further massacre occurred in 1933 at the hands of the [[Iraqi Army]], in the form of the [[Simele massacre]], which resulted in thousands of deaths.

===21st century: eparchies around the world===
A recent development in the Chaldean Catholic Church has been the creation in 2006 of the [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle|Eparchy of Oceania]], with the title of 'St Thomas the Apostle of Sydney of the Chaldeans'.<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|diocese|dsych|Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Sydney (Chaldean)|21 January 2015}}</ref> This jurisdiction includes the Chaldean Catholic communities of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and the first Bishop, named by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] on 21 October 2006, is Archbishop [[Jibrail Kassab|Djibrail (Jibrail) Kassab]], until this date, Archbishop of [[Bassorah]] in Iraq.<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|bishop|bkassab|Archbishop Djibrail Kassab|21 January 2015}}</ref>

There has been a large immigration to the [[United States]] particularly to [[southeast Michigan]].<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|diocese|ddech|Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit (Chaldean)|21 January 2015}}</ref> Although the largest population resides in southeast Michigan, there are populations in parts of [[California]] and [[Arizona]] as well. [[Canada]] in recent years has shown growing communities in both eastern provinces, such as [[Ontario]], and in western Canada, such as [[Saskatchewan]].

In 2008, Mar Bawai Soro of the [[Church of the East]] and 1,000 Chaldean families were received into full communion with the Chaldean Catholic Church from the Chaldean Church of the East.<ref name="Chaldean Bishop Mar Bawai Soto explains his journey into communion with the Catholic Church">{{cite web
|url= http://www.kaldaya.net/2008/DailyNews/06/June06_08_E1_MARBAWAI.html
|title=Chaldean Bishop Mar Bawai Soto explains his journey into communion with the Catholic Church
|work=kaldaya.net
|accessdate=11 September 2012
}}</ref>

On Friday, June 10, 2011, [[Pope Benedict XVI]] erected a new Chaldean Catholic eparchy in [[Toronto, Canada]] and named [[Archbishop]] Mar [[Yohannan Zora]], who has worked alongside four priests with Catholics in Toronto (the largest community of Chaldeans) for nearly 20 years and who was previously an [[ad personam]] [[Archbishop]] (he will retain this rank as head of the eparchy) and the Archbishop of the Archdiocese (Archeparchy) of [[Ahwaz, Iran]] (since 1974). The new eparchy, or diocese, will be known as the [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Mar Addai]]. There are 38,000 Chaldean Catholics in Canada. Archbishop Zora was born in [[Batnaia, Iraq]], on March 15, 1939. He was ordained in 1962 and worked in Iraqi parishes before being transferred to Iran in 1969.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/briefs/cns/20110610.htm#head5 |title=CNS NEWS BRIEFS Jun-10-2011 |publisher=Catholicnews.com |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref>

The 2006 Australian census counted a total of 4,498 Chaldean Catholics in that country.<ref>{{cite web|author=2006 Religious Affiliation (Full Classification) |url=http://www.census-campaign.org.au/?page_id=27 |title=» 2006 Religious Affiliation (Full Classification) The Census Campaign Australia |publisher=Census-campaign.org.au |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref>

===Persecution in Iraq===
Chaldeans of all denominations, and other religious minorities in Iraq, have endured extensive persecution since 2003, including the abductions and murders of their religious leaders, threats of violence or death if they do not abandon their homes and businesses, and the bombing or destruction of their churches and other places of worship. All this has occurred as anti-Christian emotions rise within Iraq after the American invasion and the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003 and the rise of militant [[Jihadists]] and religious militias.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chaldean.org/Home/tabid/36/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/308/Iraqs-Persecution-of-Christians-Continues-to-Spiral-out-of-Control.aspx |title=Iraq's Persecution of Christians Continues to Spiral out of Control |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref>

Father [[Ragheed Aziz Ganni]], the pastor of the Chaldean Church of the Holy Spirit in [[Mosul]] who graduated from the [[Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas|Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, ''Angelicum'']] in Rome in 2003 with a licentiate in ecumenical theology, was killed on 3 June 2007 in [[Mosul]] alongside the subdeacons Basman Yousef Daud, Wahid Hanna Isho, and Gassan Isam Bidawed, after he celebrated mass.

Chaldean Archbishop [[Paulos Faraj Rahho]] and three companions were abducted on 29 February 2008, in Mosul, and murdered a few days later.

== Structure ==
The Chaldean Catholic Church has the following dioceses:
* Patriarchate of [[Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon|Babylon]]
* Metropolitan Archdioceses of [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Baghdad|Baghdad]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Kirkuk|Kirkuk]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Tehran|Tehran]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Urmya|Urmya]]
* Archdioceses of [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Ahwaz|Ahwaz]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Basra|Basra]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Diyarbakir|Diyarbakir]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Erbil|Erbil]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Mosul|Mosul]]
* Eparchies of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Aleppe|Aleppe]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Alquoch|Alquoch]], [[Amadiya (Chaldean Diocese)|Amadia]], [[Aqra|Akra]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Beirut|Beirut]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Cairo|Cairo]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Peter The Apostle|St Peter the Apostle of San Diego]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|St Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Mar Addai of Toronto]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle|St Thomas the Apostle of Sydney]], [[Salmas (Chaldean Archdiocese)|Salmas]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Sulaimaniya|Sulaimaniya]], [[Zakho (Chaldean Diocese)|Zaku]]
* Territories dependent on the Patriarch: [[Chaldean Catholic Territory Dependent on the Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Chaldean Catholic Territory Dependent on the Patriarch of Jordan|Jordan]]

===Hierarchy===
The current Patriarch is [[Louis Sako]], elected in January 2013. In October 2007, his predecessor, Emmanuel III Delly became the first Chaldean Catholic patriarch to be elevated to the rank of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] within the Catholic Church.<ref>[http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5jrwm778S-HyuIfgZAXj6WPONyV8wD8SB0N8O0 AP]{{dead link|date=November 2012|bot=Legobot}}</ref>

The present Chaldean episcopate (January 2014) is as follows:

*Mar [[Louis Raphael I Sako|Louis Raphaël I Sako]], Patriarch of Babylon (since February 2013);
*Mar [[Emmanuel III Delly]], Patriarch emeritus of Babylon (December 2003 – 2012)
*[[Emil Shimoun Nona]], Archbishop of Mosul (since November 2009);
*[[Bashar Warda]], Archbishop of [[Arbil]] (since July 2010)
*[[Ramzi Garmou]], Archbishop of Teheran (since February 1999);
*Thomas Meram, Archbishop of Urmia and Salmas (since 1984);
*Yohannan Zora, Archbishop of Toronto (since June 2011);
*[[Archbishop Jibrail Kassab|Jibrail Kassab]], Archbishop of Sydney (since October 2006);
*[[Mar Jacques Ishaq]], Titular Archbishop of Nisibis and curial Bishop of Babylon (since December 2005);
*Habib Al-Naufali, Archbishop of Basra (since 2014)
*Yousif Mirkis, Archbishop of Kirkuk and Suleimanya (since 2014)
*Mar Mikha Pola Maqdassi, Bishop of Alqosh (since December 2001)
*[[Mar Shlemon Warduni]], curial Bishop of Babylon (since 2001).
*Mar Saad Sirop, auxiliary Bishop of Babylon (since 2014)
*Mar Antony Audo, Bishop of Aleppo (since January 1992);
*Mar Michael Kassarji, Bishop of Lebanon (since 2001);
*Mar Rabban Al-Qas, Bishop of [[Amadiya (Chaldean Diocese)|{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿ}}Amadiya]] and [[Zakho (Chaldean Diocese)|Zakho]] (since December 2001);
*[[Mar Ibrahim Namo Ibrahim|Mar Ibrahim Ibrahim]], Bishop of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]] (since April 1982 – 2014);
*[[Mar Francis Kalabat]], Bishop of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]] (since June 2014)
*[[Mar Sarhad Yawsip Jammo|Mar Sarhad Joseph Jammo]], Bishop of Saint Peter the Apostle of San Diego (since July 2002);
*Mar Bawai Soro, Titular Bishop of Foratiana and auxiliary bishop of Saint Peter the Apostle of San Diego (since 2014)

Several sees are vacant:
Archeparchy of Diyarbakir,
Archeparchy of Ahwaz,
Eparchy of 'Aqra,
Eparchy of Cairo.

==Liturgy==
The Chaldean Catholic Church uses the [[East Syrian Rite]].

A slight reform of the liturgy was effective since 6 January 2007, and it aimed to unify the many different uses of each parish, to remove centuries-old additions that merely imitated the [[Roman Rite]], and for pastoral reasons. The main elements of variations are: the [[Anaphora (liturgy)|Anaphora]] said aloud by the priest, the return to the ancient architecture of the churches, the restoration of the ancient use where the bread and wine are readied before a service begins, and the removal from the [[Credo|Creed]] of the ''[[Filioque]]'' clause.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaldu.org/14_Reformed_ChaldeanMass/QA_NewMass.html |title=TQ & A on the Reformed Chaldean Mass |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon]]
*[[Eastern Catholicism]]
*Liturgies: [[East Syrian Rite]], [[Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari]]
*Film about Chaldean Christians: [[Chaldean Voices]]
*[[Chaldean People]]
*[[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.easterncatholics.net/ Chaldean Catholic Church Mass Times]
*[http://www.cnewa.org/default.aspx?ID=59&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 Article on the Chaldean Catholic Church by Ronald Roberson on the CNEWA web site]
*[http://www.kaldu.org/index.htm Chaldean Catholic Diocese of Saint Peter]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14413a.htm East Syrian Rite] ([[Catholic Encyclopedia]])
*[http://stthomascc.org/daughters-of-mary-immaculate/ Daughters of the Immaculate Conception, a congregation located in Michigan]
*[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20011025_chiesa-caldea-assira_en.html Guidelines for Chaldean Catholics receiving the Eucharist in Chaldean Churches]
*[http://christiansofiraq.com/reply.html History of the Chaldean Church]
*[http://nasrani.net/2008/10/31/qambel-maran-syriac-chants-from-south-india// Qambel Maran- Syriac chants from South India- a review and liturgical music tradition of Syriac Christians revisited]
*[http://pauluschurch.com/ St Pauls Chaldean church]
*[http://www.chaldean.org/Home/tabid/36/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/308/Iraqs-Persecution-of-Christians-Continues-to-Spiral-out-of-Control.aspx]
*[http://www.chaldeanfederation.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=53]
*[http://chaldean.org/CommunityPages/ChaldeanChurches/MarAddaiMIUSA/tabid/118/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/440/Chaldeans-in-Baghdad-Celebrate-The-First-Ever-Public-Christmas-Event.aspx]
*[http://www.newsmax.com/KenTimmerman/joseph-kassab-christians-iraq/2010/11/02/id/375698]
{{Chaldean Catholic Hierarchy}}
{{Syriacs}}
{{Catholicism}}

[[Category:Chaldean Catholic Church| ]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism in Iraq]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism]]
[[Category:National churches|Iraq]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church in Iraq]]

Chaldean Catholic Church/fr

2015-11-21T20:50:29Z

FuzzyBot: Updating to match new version of source page

<languagages/>
L''''Église catholique chaldéenne''', '''Église chaldéenne catholique''' ou '''Église chaldéenne de l'Orient''' est une des [[Églises catholiques orientales]]. Le chef de l'Église porte le titre de ''[[Catholicos de l'Orient|Catholicos]]-[[Patriarche (religion)|Patriarche]] de Babylone des Chaldéens'', avec résidence à [[Bagdad]] en [[Irak]]. Le titulaire actuel est le patriarche [[Louis Raphaël Ier Sako|Louis Raphaël {{Ier}} Sako]], élu le 31 janvier 2013 <ref>[http://www.mission-chaldeenne.org/actualite_mgr-louis-sako-nouveau-patriarche-des-chaldeens.php Mgr Louis Sako nouveau patriarche des Chaldéens].</ref>.

== Histoire ==
Les premiers contacts entre l'Église de l'Orient et l'Église de Rome se produisirent au XIIIème siècle au cours des ambassades dominicaine et franciscaine vers les Mongols initiées par [[Innocent IV]]<ref>cf. articles [[André de Longjumeau]], [[Guillaume de Rubrouck]]</ref>. Ils se poursuivirent lors des tentatives de rapprochement diplomatique entre les "Francs" et les Mongols installés au Moyen-Orient. Ainsi, en 1289, le moine "nestorien" [[Rabban Bar Sauma]], rapporta de sa mission en Occident une lettre du pape [[Nicolas IV]] au catholicos [[Yahballaha III]] (1281-1317). En 1290, Yahballaha reçoit le dominicain [[Ricoldo da Monte Croce]] ; il écrit en 1302 à [[Boniface VIII]].

En 1340, les Chaldéens résidant à Chypre entrèrent en communion avec Rome<ref>DOC p. 163</ref>. L'Union fut réitérée au [[Concile de Florence]], par le décret Benedictus du 7 août 1445.

Au XVIème siècle, des évêques indignés par la transmission héréditaire du patriarcat d'oncle à neveu adoptée en 1450, refusèrent, en 1552, l'autorité du Patriarche Simon VII Ishoyahb et élirent, malgré lui, l'abbé [[Yohannan Soulaqa]] comme patriarche. Il fut envoyé à Rome pour demander la consécration épiscopale et la communion avec le [[Saint-Siège]]. Le Pape [[Jules III]] l'ordonna évêque et le proclama Patriarche des chaldéens sous le nom de Simon VIII Soulaqa.

Le retour de Simon VIII en Orient provoqua de vives querelles ; lui-mêmes fut exécuté en 1555 et sa communauté fut en grande partie réintégrée à l'Église assyrienne ; il s'ensuivit une période troublée où catholiques et nestoriens se combattirent avec acharnement en changeant de temps à autres de parti.

Ce n'est qu'en 1830 que la situation se stabilisa, avec la confirmation par [[Pie VIII]] de Jean Hormizdas comme Patriarche de Babylone des chaldéens, sous le nom de Youhanan VIII Hormez, avec son siège à [[Mossoul]]. Les catholiques devinrent largement majoritaires parmi les assyriens, mais souffrirent lourdement des [[génocide assyrien|massacres de 1918]], perdant 70 000 fidèles ; il en résulta un mouvement des chaldéens vers le sud, et le siège patriarcal fut finalement transféré à Bagdad en 1950.

En 1994, [[Jean-Paul II]] signa un accord christologique avec le Patriarche assyrien [[Mar Dinkha IV]] Khanania, mettant fin à la controverse nestorienne, ce qui améliora spectaculairement les relations entre les chaldéens catholiques et l'Église assyrienne, liens resserrées encore par les événements actuels et les violences islamistes qui pèsent sur l'ensemble de la chrétienté irakienne.

== Liturgie ==
L'Église chaldéenne utilise la langue liturgique [[syriaque]] dérivée de l'[[araméen]].

== Organisation ==
=== Organisation territoriale ===

'''''[[Irak]]'''''
[[File:Chaldean Catholic Cathedral of Saint Joseph 2005 (Ankawa, Erbil, Iraq).jpg|alt=|thumb| Cathédrale Saint Joseph d'Erbil]]
* Métropole de Bagdad
* Métropole de Kirkouk
* Archéparchie d'Erbil
* Archéparchie de Bassorah
* Archéparchie de Mossoul
* Éparchie d'Alqosh
* Éparchie d'Amadiyah
* Éparchie d'Aqra
* Éparchie de Sulaimaniya
* Éparchie de Zakho

'''''[[Iran]]'''''

* Métropole de Téhéran
* Métropole d'Ourmia
* Archéparchie de Ahwaz
* Éparchie de Salmas

'''''Reste du [[Moyen-Orient]]'''''

* Archéparchie de Diarbekir
* Éparchie d'Alep (siège: [[cathédrale Saint-Joseph d'Alep]])
* Éparchie de Beyrouth
* Éparchie du Caire
* Vicariat patriarcal de Jordanie
* Territoire patriarcal de [[Jérusalem]]

'''''Reste du monde'''''

* [[Éparchie Saint-Thomas l'Apôtre de Détroit des Chaldéens|Éparchie Saint-Thomas l'Apôtre de Détroit]] (États-Unis)
* [[Éparchie Saint-Pierre Apôtre de San Diego des Chaldéens|Éparchie Saint-Pierre Apôtre de San Diego]] (États-Unis)
* [[Éparchie Mar Addaï de Toronto des Chaldéens|Éparchie Mar Addaï de Toronto]] (Canada)
* [[Éparchie Saint-Thomas l'Apôtre de Sydney des Chaldéens|Éparchie Saint-Thomas l'Apôtre de Sydney]] (Australie)
* Vicariat patriarcal de France
* Vicariat patriarcal de Russie et de la [[Communauté des États indépendants|CEI]]

=== Les Instituts de vie consacrée et apostolique ===

Un ordre religieux masculin et deux congrégations religieuses féminines :

* L'ordre Antonin Chaldéen de saint Hormizda.
* La congrégation des Filles chaldéennes de Marie.
* La congrégation du Sacré-Cœur.

== Relations avec les autres Églises ==

L'Église est membre du [[Conseil des Églises du Moyen-Orient]] et reconnue par le Vatican.

=== Relations avec les autres Églises de tradition syriaque ===
{{loupe|Dialogue entre les Églises de tradition syriaque}}
Depuis [[1994]], l'Église catholique chaldéenne participe à une série de discussions œcuméniques avec les autres Églises de tradition syriaque, à l'initiative de la Fondation [[Pro Oriente]], organisme dépendant du diocèse catholique de [[Vienne (Autriche)|Vienne]] en [[Autriche]]. Ces discussions rassemblent des représentants d'Églises catholiques et séparées, de tradition syriaque occidentale ([[Église syriaque orthodoxe]], [[Église catholique syriaque]], [[Église malankare orthodoxe]], [[Église catholique syro-malankare]], [[Église maronite]]) et de tradition syriaque orientale ([[Église apostolique assyrienne de l'Orient]], [[Ancienne Église de l'Orient]], Église catholique chaldéenne, [[Église catholique syro-malabare]]).

==== Relations avec l'Église apostolique assyrienne de l'Orient. ====
Par la [http://www.pro.urbe.it/dia-int/ac-rc/doc/e_ac-rc_1994.html « Déclaration christologique commune »] de 1994, signée par le pape [[Jean-Paul II]] et le patriarche [[Mar Dinkha IV]], le principal problème dogmatique existant entre l'Église catholique et l'Église assyrienne d'Orient a été résolu. Par conséquent, le rapprochement œcuménique entre l'Église chaldéenne et l'Église assyrienne d'Orient est parvenu à une nouvelle phase de développement.

Le 29 novembre 1996, le patriarche Mar Raphaël Bidawid et le patriarche Mar Dinkha IV signent une liste de propositions communes dans le but de parvenir au rétablissement de la pleine unité ecclésiale entre les deux héritières historiques de l'antique [[Église de l'Orient]].

Le 15 août 1997, les synodes des deux Églises approuvent ce programme et le confirment par un [http://www.pro.urbe.it/dia-int/ac-rc/doc/e_ac-rc_joint-synodal.html Décret synodal conjoint]. Les deux patriarches approuvent, avec l'appui de leurs synodes respectifs, une nouvelle série d'initiatives visant à promouvoir le rétablissement progressif de leur unité ecclésiale.

Le 20 juillet 2001, le Conseil pontifical pour la promotion de l'unité des chrétiens publie des
[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20011025_chiesa-caldea-assira_fr.html orientations pour l'admission à l'Eucharistie entre l'Église chaldéenne et l'Église assyrienne d'Orient] en reconnaissant la validité de l'Eucharistie célébrée avec l'anaphore de Addai et Mari.

== Voir aussi ==
=== Liens et références ===
<references />
{{About|Chaldean church in Mesopotamia Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Iran|Church of the East in India|Chaldean Syrian Church}}
{{Infobox Orthodox Church|
|show_name = Chaldean Catholic Church ܥܕܬܐ ܟܠܕܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝܬܐ ''Ecclesia Chaldaeorum Catholica''
|image = [[File:Patriarchum Babylonensis Chaldenorum.jpg|200px]]
|caption = Emblem of the [[List of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon|Chaldean Patriarchate]]
|founder = Traces ultimate origins to [[Thomas the Apostle]], [[Addai]] and [[Saint Mari|Mari]]; emerged from the [[Church of the East]] in the 3rd Century
|independence = [[Apostolic Age|Apostolic Era]]
|recognition = [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]
|primate = [[Louis Raphaël I Sako]]
|headquarters = [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]]
|territory = [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], [[Israel]], [[Egypt]], [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Greece]], [[Netherlands]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Georgia (country)]], [[Sweden]], [[United Kingdom]]

|language = [[Chaldean language|Chaldean]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnewa.org/default.aspx?ID=59&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |title=The Chaldean Catholic Church |publisher=CNEWA |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref> [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
|population = 2,500,000<ref name="CNEWA website">{{cite web
|url=http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat10.pdf
|author=Ronald Roberson
|title=The Eastern Catholic Churches 2010
|publisher=Catholic Near East Welfare Association
|accessdate=December 2010}} Information sourced from ''Annuario Pontificio'' 2010 edition</ref><ref name=cnewa.org>[http://www.cnewa.org/ecc-bodypg-us.aspx?eccpageID=59&IndexView=toc CNEWA - Chaldean Catholic Church]</ref>
|website = http://www.saint-adday.com/
}}
The '''Chaldean Catholic Church''' ({{lang-syc|ܥܕܬܐ ܟܠܕܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝܬܐ}}, ''ʿītha kaldetha qāthuliqetha''), is an [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern]] [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac]] [[Particular church#Autonomous particular Churches or Rites|particular church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], under the [[Apostolic see|Holy See]] of the [[Catholicos]]-[[Patriarch of Babylon]], maintaining [[full communion]] with the [[Bishop of Rome]] and the rest of the Catholic Church. The Chaldean Catholic Church presently comprises an estimated 2,500,000 people who are ethnic [[Chaldean people|Chaldeans]]

==Chaldean Church History==
The history of the Chaldean Church is the history of the [[Church of the East]] founded between the 1st and 2nd centuries AD in Mesopotamia [[Chaldea]] (Chaldeans ruled [[Mesopotamia]]) — represented today by at least eleven different churches, (then ruled by the successive Parthian and Sassanid Empires, where it was known by derivative names for Chaldea) — between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD. The region of Chaldea was also the birthplace of the [[Syriac language]] and [[Syriac script]], both of which remain important within all strands of [[Syriac Christianity]].

It was originally a part of [[The Church of the East]] before the 1553 consecration of [[Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa]] who entered communion with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], when it was renamed the ''Church of Mosul''. Subsequent to this, it was again renamed by Rome in 1683 as the Chaldean Catholic Church in recognition of the native Chaldean people of Mesopotamia Iraq where Father Ibrahim was raised and lived at UR of Chaldeans.

After the extensive massacres of Chaldean and other Christians by [[Tamerlane]] around 1400 AD had devastated many Chaldean bishoprics and finally destroyed the 4000 year old city of [[Nineveh]], the Church of the East — which had extended as far as [[China]], [[Central Asia]], [[Mongolia]] and [[India]] — was largely reduced to [[Mesopotamia]], its place of origin. It was followed by its core founders of [[Eastern Aramaic]] speaking ethnic [[Chaldean people|Chaldean]]s who lived largely in Mesopotamia between [[Diyarbakır|Amid (Diyarbakır)]], [[Mardin]], [[Harran]] and [[Hakkari]] in the north to [[Mosul]], [[Irbil]] and [[Kirkuk]] in the south, and from [[Salmas]] and [[Urmia]] in the east to [[Al-Hassakeh]], [[Tur Abdin]] and [[Edessa]] in the west; an area approximately encompassing ancient [[Chaldea]].

===1552: Yohannan Sulaqa===
Dissent over the hereditary succession grew until 1552, when a group of Chaldean bishops, from the northern regions of [[Amid]] and [[Salmas]], elected a priest, Mar [[Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa|Yohannan Sulaqa]], as a rival patriarch. To look for a bishop of [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] rank to consecrate him patriarch, Sulaqa traveled to the [[pope]] in Rome and entered into communion with the [[Catholic Church]], after first being refused by the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]. In 1553 he was consecrated bishop and elevated to the rank of patriarch taking the name of Mar Shimun VIII. He was granted the title of "Patriarch of the Chaldeans", and his church was named ''The Church of Mosul''.

Mar Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa returned to northern [[Mesopotamia]] in the same year and fixed his seat in [[Amid]]. Before being put to death by the radical Nestorians of the [[Church of the East]] patriarch of [[Alqosh]],<ref name="Frazee" />{{rp|57}} he ordained five metropolitan Chaldean bishops thus beginning a new ecclesiastical hierarchy: the patriarchal line known as the ''Shimun line''. The area of influence of this patriarchate soon moved from Amid east, fixing the See, after many places, in the Chaldean village of [[Qochanis]].

The connections with Rome loosened up under Sulaqa's successors: The last patriarch to be formally recognized by the Pope died in 1600, the hereditary of the office was reintroduced and, in 1692, the [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome was formally broken, with this part of the church once more rejoining the [[Church of the East]].
[[File:Chaldean Bishops worldwide.jpg|thumb|Chaldean Bishops worldwide representing the Chaldean Church led by Chaldean Cardinal Emmanuel Delly III visit the Holy Pope, The Vatican, Italy, 2013]]
{{See also|Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa}}

===1672: The ''Josephite line'' of Amid===
In 1672, 'Chaldean' Patriarchate Chaldean [[Joseph I (Chaldean Patriarch)|Mar Joseph I]], Archbishop of Amid, entered in [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome. In 1681 the [[Holy See]] granted him the title of "Patriarch of the Chaldeans deprived of its patriarch."

The 'Chaldean Catholic' arose due to a Catholic [[Latin language|Latin]] in recognition of the native Chaldean people of Mesopotamia and of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Ur Kasdim'' (according to long held Jewish tradition, the birthplace of Abraham in northern Mesopotamia) as meaning ''Ur of the Chaldees''.<ref>''Biblical Archaeology Review'', May/June 2001: Where Was Abraham's Ur? by Allan R. Millard</ref>

The 'Chaldean Catholic' is historically, usually and properly taken purely as a [[doctrinal]] and [[theological]] term for Chaldean People believers of Catholicism.<ref>Travis, Hannibal. ''Genocide in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire, Iraq, and Sudan''. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010, 2007, pp. 237-77, 293–294</ref><ref name="conference.osu.eu">http://conference.osu.eu/globalization/publ/08-bohac.pdf</ref><ref name="conference.osu.eu" /> The modern Chaldean Catholics are [[Chaldean people| Chaldeans]]<ref>Nisan, M. 2002. ''[http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/14225.html Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle for Self Expression]''. Jefferson: McFarland & Company.</ref> and originated from ancient Chaldean communities living in and indigenous to the north of Iraq/Upper Mesopotamia which was known as Chaldea from the 25th century BC until the 7th century AD.

All Joseph I's successors took the name of Joseph. The life of this patriarchate was difficult: at the beginning due to the vexations from the traditionalists, under which they were subject from a legal point of view, and later it struggled with financial difficulties due to the tax burden imposed by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] authorities.
[[File:Two Chaldean bishops ordination (Bishop Baselio Yaldo and Bishop Shaleta).jpg|thumb|Chaldean Bishops Ordination in Michigan 2015 (Bishop Yaldo and Bishop Shalita)]]
[[File:Diyarbakir P1050612 20080427130622.JPG|thumb|Chaldean Monastery, Dyar Bakir, Turkey, Established 3rd Century AD]]
Nevertheless its influence expanded from the original towns of [[Amid]] and [[Mardin]] towards the area of [[Mosul]] and the [[Nineveh plains]]. The ''Josephite line'' unified in 1830 with the Chaldean [[Alqosh]] patriarchate that in the meantime entered in [[full communion]] with Rome.

===The Alqosh Patriarchate in communion with Rome===

The largest and oldest [[episcopal see|patriarchal see]] of the Chaldean Church of the East was based at the [[Rabban Hormizd Monastery|Rabban Hormizd]] monastery of Alqosh. It spread from [[Aqrah]] up to [[Siirt|Seert]] and [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]], covering in the south the rich plain of [[Mosul]]. Already in the short period between 1610 and 1617 it entered in [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome, and in 1771 the patriarch Eliya Denkha signed a Catholic confession of faith, but no formal union resulted. When Eliya Denkha died, his succession was disputed by two cousins: Eliyya Isho-Yab, who was recognized by Rome but soon broke the communion, and [[Yohannan Hormizd]], who considered himself a Catholic.

In 1804, after Eliyya Isho-Yab's death, Yohannan Hormizd remained the only patriarch of Alqosh. There were thus two patriarchates in communion with Rome, the larger one in Alqosh, and in Amid that ruled by [[Augustine Hindi|Augustine (Yousef V) Hindi]]. Rome did not want to choose between the two candidates and granted neither the title of Patriarch, even if from 1811 it was Augustine Hindi who ruled the Church. After Hindi's death, on the July 5, 1830, Yohannan Hormizd was formally confirmed Patriarch by [[Pope Pius VIII]] with the title of "Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans."<ref name="angold">{{cite book|last=O’Mahony |first=Anthony |editor=Angold, Michael |title=Eastern Christianity |series=Cambridge History of Christianity|volume=5|year=2006|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-81113-2 |chapter=Syriac Christianity in the modern Middle East}}</ref>{{rp|528}} The merger of the patriarchates of Alqosh and Amid was completed.

===19th century: expansion and disaster===
[[File:King Faisal I with Chaldean bishops (1852 1947).jpg|thumbnail|[[Faisal I of Iraq]] with all the Chaldean bishops and the Patriarch [[Yousef VI Emmanuel II Thomas]], 1921 ]]
The following years of the Chaldean Church were marked by externally originating violence: in 1838 the monastery of [[Rabban Hormizd Monastery|Rabban Hormizd]] and the town of Alqosh was attacked by the [[Kurds]] of [[Soran Emirate|Soran]] and hundreds of Christian Chaldeans died.<ref name="Wilm">David Wilmshurst, ''The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318-1913'', Peeters Publishers, 2000 ISBN 90-429-0876-9</ref>{{rp|32}} In 1843 the Kurds started to collect as much money as they could from Chaldean villages, killing those who refused: more than 10,000 Chaldean Christians of all denominations were killed and the icons of the Rabban Hormizd monastery defaced.<ref name="Frazee" />{{rp|298}}{{Eastern Catholicism}}In 1846 the Chaldean Church was recognized by the [[Ottoman Empire]] as a '[[millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]]', a distinctive 'religious community' in the Empire, thus obtaining its civic emancipation.<ref name="angold">Michael Angold ''Eastern Christianity'', Cambridge University Press, 2006 ISBN 0-521-81113-9 pag 528</ref> The most famous patriarch of the Chaldean Church in the 19th century was [[Joseph Audo|Joseph VI Audo]] who is remembered also for his clashes with [[Pope Pius IX]] mainly about his attempts to extend the Chaldean jurisdiction over the Indian [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]. This was a period of expansion for the Chaldean Catholic Church.[[File:Church-In Basra-Iraq كنيسة في البصرة العراق.JPG|thumbnail|A [[Chaldean Catholic]] Church in [[Basra]] 2014]]In the early 20th century massacres and continuation of the [[Chaldean Genocide]] died from cold in the winter or hunger. The disaster struck mainly the regions of the Chaldean Church of the East and the Chaldean dioceses in north Chaldea (Amid, [[Siirt]] and [[Gazarta]]) were ruined (the Chaldeans metropolitans [[Addai Scher]] of [[Siirt]] and [[Philip Abraham]] of [[Gazarta]] were killed in 1915).<ref name="Wilm" />{{rp|37}}

A further massacre occurred in 1933 at the hands of the [[Iraqi Army]], in the form of the [[Simele massacre]], which resulted in thousands of deaths.

===21st century: eparchies around the world===
A recent development in the Chaldean Catholic Church has been the creation in 2006 of the [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle|Eparchy of Oceania]], with the title of 'St Thomas the Apostle of Sydney of the Chaldeans'.<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|diocese|dsych|Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Sydney (Chaldean)|21 January 2015}}</ref> This jurisdiction includes the Chaldean Catholic communities of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and the first Bishop, named by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] on 21 October 2006, is Archbishop [[Jibrail Kassab|Djibrail (Jibrail) Kassab]], until this date, Archbishop of [[Bassorah]] in Iraq.<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|bishop|bkassab|Archbishop Djibrail Kassab|21 January 2015}}</ref>

There has been a large immigration to the [[United States]] particularly to [[southeast Michigan]].<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|diocese|ddech|Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit (Chaldean)|21 January 2015}}</ref> Although the largest population resides in southeast Michigan, there are populations in parts of [[California]] and [[Arizona]] as well. [[Canada]] in recent years has shown growing communities in both eastern provinces, such as [[Ontario]], and in western Canada, such as [[Saskatchewan]].

In 2008, Mar Bawai Soro of the [[Church of the East]] and 1,000 Chaldean families were received into full communion with the Chaldean Catholic Church from the Chaldean Church of the East.<ref name="Chaldean Bishop Mar Bawai Soto explains his journey into communion with the Catholic Church">{{cite web
|url= http://www.kaldaya.net/2008/DailyNews/06/June06_08_E1_MARBAWAI.html
|title=Chaldean Bishop Mar Bawai Soto explains his journey into communion with the Catholic Church
|work=kaldaya.net
|accessdate=11 September 2012
}}</ref>

On Friday, June 10, 2011, [[Pope Benedict XVI]] erected a new Chaldean Catholic eparchy in [[Toronto, Canada]] and named [[Archbishop]] Mar [[Yohannan Zora]], who has worked alongside four priests with Catholics in Toronto (the largest community of Chaldeans) for nearly 20 years and who was previously an [[ad personam]] [[Archbishop]] (he will retain this rank as head of the eparchy) and the Archbishop of the Archdiocese (Archeparchy) of [[Ahwaz, Iran]] (since 1974). The new eparchy, or diocese, will be known as the [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Mar Addai]]. There are 38,000 Chaldean Catholics in Canada. Archbishop Zora was born in [[Batnaia, Iraq]], on March 15, 1939. He was ordained in 1962 and worked in Iraqi parishes before being transferred to Iran in 1969.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/briefs/cns/20110610.htm#head5 |title=CNS NEWS BRIEFS Jun-10-2011 |publisher=Catholicnews.com |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref>

The 2006 Australian census counted a total of 4,498 Chaldean Catholics in that country.<ref>{{cite web|author=2006 Religious Affiliation (Full Classification) |url=http://www.census-campaign.org.au/?page_id=27 |title=» 2006 Religious Affiliation (Full Classification) The Census Campaign Australia |publisher=Census-campaign.org.au |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref>

===Persecution in Iraq===
Chaldeans of all denominations, and other religious minorities in Iraq, have endured extensive persecution since 2003, including the abductions and murders of their religious leaders, threats of violence or death if they do not abandon their homes and businesses, and the bombing or destruction of their churches and other places of worship. All this has occurred as anti-Christian emotions rise within Iraq after the American invasion and the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003 and the rise of militant [[Jihadists]] and religious militias.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chaldean.org/Home/tabid/36/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/308/Iraqs-Persecution-of-Christians-Continues-to-Spiral-out-of-Control.aspx |title=Iraq's Persecution of Christians Continues to Spiral out of Control |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref>

Father [[Ragheed Aziz Ganni]], the pastor of the Chaldean Church of the Holy Spirit in [[Mosul]] who graduated from the [[Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas|Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, ''Angelicum'']] in Rome in 2003 with a licentiate in ecumenical theology, was killed on 3 June 2007 in [[Mosul]] alongside the subdeacons Basman Yousef Daud, Wahid Hanna Isho, and Gassan Isam Bidawed, after he celebrated mass.

Chaldean Archbishop [[Paulos Faraj Rahho]] and three companions were abducted on 29 February 2008, in Mosul, and murdered a few days later.

== Structure ==
The Chaldean Catholic Church has the following dioceses:
* Patriarchate of [[Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon|Babylon]]
* Metropolitan Archdioceses of [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Baghdad|Baghdad]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Kirkuk|Kirkuk]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Tehran|Tehran]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Urmya|Urmya]]
* Archdioceses of [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Ahwaz|Ahwaz]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Basra|Basra]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Diyarbakir|Diyarbakir]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Erbil|Erbil]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Mosul|Mosul]]
* Eparchies of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Aleppe|Aleppe]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Alquoch|Alquoch]], [[Amadiya (Chaldean Diocese)|Amadia]], [[Aqra|Akra]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Beirut|Beirut]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Cairo|Cairo]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Peter The Apostle|St Peter the Apostle of San Diego]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|St Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Mar Addai of Toronto]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle|St Thomas the Apostle of Sydney]], [[Salmas (Chaldean Archdiocese)|Salmas]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Sulaimaniya|Sulaimaniya]], [[Zakho (Chaldean Diocese)|Zaku]]
* Territories dependent on the Patriarch: [[Chaldean Catholic Territory Dependent on the Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Chaldean Catholic Territory Dependent on the Patriarch of Jordan|Jordan]]

===Hierarchy===
The current Patriarch is [[Louis Sako]], elected in January 2013. In October 2007, his predecessor, Emmanuel III Delly became the first Chaldean Catholic patriarch to be elevated to the rank of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] within the Catholic Church.<ref>[http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5jrwm778S-HyuIfgZAXj6WPONyV8wD8SB0N8O0 AP]{{dead link|date=November 2012|bot=Legobot}}</ref>

The present Chaldean episcopate (January 2014) is as follows:

*Mar [[Louis Raphael I Sako|Louis Raphaël I Sako]], Patriarch of Babylon (since February 2013);
*Mar [[Emmanuel III Delly]], Patriarch emeritus of Babylon (December 2003 – 2012)
*[[Emil Shimoun Nona]], Archbishop of Mosul (since November 2009);
*[[Bashar Warda]], Archbishop of [[Arbil]] (since July 2010)
*[[Ramzi Garmou]], Archbishop of Teheran (since February 1999);
*Thomas Meram, Archbishop of Urmia and Salmas (since 1984);
*Yohannan Zora, Archbishop of Toronto (since June 2011);
*[[Archbishop Jibrail Kassab|Jibrail Kassab]], Archbishop of Sydney (since October 2006);
*[[Mar Jacques Ishaq]], Titular Archbishop of Nisibis and curial Bishop of Babylon (since December 2005);
*Habib Al-Naufali, Archbishop of Basra (since 2014)
*Yousif Mirkis, Archbishop of Kirkuk and Suleimanya (since 2014)
*Mar Mikha Pola Maqdassi, Bishop of Alqosh (since December 2001)
*[[Mar Shlemon Warduni]], curial Bishop of Babylon (since 2001).
*Mar Saad Sirop, auxiliary Bishop of Babylon (since 2014)
*Mar Antony Audo, Bishop of Aleppo (since January 1992);
*Mar Michael Kassarji, Bishop of Lebanon (since 2001);
*Mar Rabban Al-Qas, Bishop of [[Amadiya (Chaldean Diocese)|{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿ}}Amadiya]] and [[Zakho (Chaldean Diocese)|Zakho]] (since December 2001);
*[[Mar Ibrahim Namo Ibrahim|Mar Ibrahim Ibrahim]], Bishop of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]] (since April 1982 – 2014);
*[[Mar Francis Kalabat]], Bishop of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]] (since June 2014)
*[[Mar Sarhad Yawsip Jammo|Mar Sarhad Joseph Jammo]], Bishop of Saint Peter the Apostle of San Diego (since July 2002);
*Mar Bawai Soro, Titular Bishop of Foratiana and auxiliary bishop of Saint Peter the Apostle of San Diego (since 2014)

Several sees are vacant:
Archeparchy of Diyarbakir,
Archeparchy of Ahwaz,
Eparchy of 'Aqra,
Eparchy of Cairo.

==Liturgy==
The Chaldean Catholic Church uses the [[East Syrian Rite]].

A slight reform of the liturgy was effective since 6 January 2007, and it aimed to unify the many different uses of each parish, to remove centuries-old additions that merely imitated the [[Roman Rite]], and for pastoral reasons. The main elements of variations are: the [[Anaphora (liturgy)|Anaphora]] said aloud by the priest, the return to the ancient architecture of the churches, the restoration of the ancient use where the bread and wine are readied before a service begins, and the removal from the [[Credo|Creed]] of the ''[[Filioque]]'' clause.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaldu.org/14_Reformed_ChaldeanMass/QA_NewMass.html |title=TQ & A on the Reformed Chaldean Mass |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon]]
*[[Eastern Catholicism]]
*Liturgies: [[East Syrian Rite]], [[Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari]]
*Film about Chaldean Christians: [[Chaldean Voices]]
*[[Chaldean People]]
*[[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.easterncatholics.net/ Chaldean Catholic Church Mass Times]
*[http://www.cnewa.org/default.aspx?ID=59&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 Article on the Chaldean Catholic Church by Ronald Roberson on the CNEWA web site]
*[http://www.kaldu.org/index.htm Chaldean Catholic Diocese of Saint Peter]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14413a.htm East Syrian Rite] ([[Catholic Encyclopedia]])
*[http://stthomascc.org/daughters-of-mary-immaculate/ Daughters of the Immaculate Conception, a congregation located in Michigan]
*[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20011025_chiesa-caldea-assira_en.html Guidelines for Chaldean Catholics receiving the Eucharist in Chaldean Churches]
*[http://christiansofiraq.com/reply.html History of the Chaldean Church]
*[http://nasrani.net/2008/10/31/qambel-maran-syriac-chants-from-south-india// Qambel Maran- Syriac chants from South India- a review and liturgical music tradition of Syriac Christians revisited]
*[http://pauluschurch.com/ St Pauls Chaldean church]
*[http://www.chaldean.org/Home/tabid/36/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/308/Iraqs-Persecution-of-Christians-Continues-to-Spiral-out-of-Control.aspx]
*[http://www.chaldeanfederation.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=53]
*[http://chaldean.org/CommunityPages/ChaldeanChurches/MarAddaiMIUSA/tabid/118/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/440/Chaldeans-in-Baghdad-Celebrate-The-First-Ever-Public-Christmas-Event.aspx]
*[http://www.newsmax.com/KenTimmerman/joseph-kassab-christians-iraq/2010/11/02/id/375698]
{{Chaldean Catholic Hierarchy}}
{{Syriacs}}
{{Catholicism}}

[[Category:Chaldean Catholic Church| ]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism in Iraq]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism]]
[[Category:National churches|Iraq]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church in Iraq]]

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{{Infobox monarch
| name = Nabû-naʾid
| title = [[List of kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]
| image = Nabonidus.jpg
| caption = Nabonidus in relief showing him praying to the moon, sun and Venus (British Museum)
| reign = ca. 556 – 539 BC
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Labashi-Marduk]]
| successor = [[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)
| spouse =
| royal house =
| father =
| mother =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| buried =
}}


'''Nabonidus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|æ|b|ə|ˈ|n|aɪ|d|ə|s}}; [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] '''Nabû-naʾid''', "[[Nabu]] is praised", نابونيد) is the [[List of Kings of Babylon|last king]] of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], reigning from 556–539 BC.

==Historiography== 
Modern perceptions of Nabonidus' reign has been heavily colored by accounts written well after his reign as king of Babylon, most notably by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]] and the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. As a result, Nabonidus has often been described in very negative terms in both modern and contemporaneous scholarship. However, an accumulation of evidence and a reassessment of existing material has caused opinions on Nabonidus and the events that happened during his reign to alter significantly in recent decades.<ref>See for example in W. von Soden, “Kyros und Nabonid: Propaganda und Gegenpropaganda”, in H. Koch and D.N. MacKenzie (eds.), ''Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte der Achämenidenzeit und ihr Fortleben'' (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1983), 61-8; [[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]], ''The reign of Nabonidus king of Babylon 556-539 B.C.'' (New Haven CT: Yale University Press 1989); A. Kuhrt, “Nabonidus and the Babylonian priesthood”, in M. Beard and J. North (eds.), ''Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world'' (London: Duckworth), 117-55; F. Grant, “Nabonidus, Nabû-šarra-uṣur, and the Eanna temple”, in ''Zeitschrift für Assyriologie'' 81 (1991:37-86); T.G. Lee, “The jasper cylinder seal of Aššurbanipal and Nabonidus’ making of Sîn’s statue”, in Revue d’Assyriologie 87 (1993:131-6); P. Machinist and H. Tadmor, “Heavenly wisdom”, in M.E. Cohen, D.C. Snell and D.B. Weisberg (eds.), ''The tablet and the scroll: Near Eastern studies in honour of William W. Hallo'' (Bethesda MD: CDL Press 1993), 146-51; H. Schaudig, ''Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros’ des Großen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendezschriften: Textausgabe und Grammatik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2001); P.-A. Beaulieu, “Nabonidus the mad king: A reconsideration of his steles from Harran and Babylon”, in M. Heinz and M.H. Feldman (eds.), ''Representations of political power: Case histories from times of change and dissolving order in the ancient Near East'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2007), 137-66.</ref>

==Biography== 

===Ascent=== 
[[Image:Cylinder Nabonidus BM WA91128.jpg|thumb|right|Terracotta cylinder by Nabonidus concerning repairs on the temple of [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]], [[British Museum]]]]
Nabonidus' background is not clear. He said in his inscriptions that he was of unimportant origins.<ref>Collected in Beaulieu 1989.</ref> Similarly, his mother [[Addagoppe of Harran|Addagoppe]], who lived to an old age and may have been connected to the [[temple]] of the [[Lunar Deity|moon-god]] [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]] in [[Harran]], does not mention her family background in her inscriptions. There are two arguments for an [[Assyria]]n background: repeated references in Nabonidus' royal [[propaganda]] and [[imagery]] to [[Ashurbanipal]], the last great [[Neo-Chaldean Empire|Neo-Chaldean]] king; and Nabonidus' originating from, and his special interest in Harran, an Chaldean city and the last stronghold of the Neo-Chaldeans after the fall of [[Nineveh]], their main [[Capital city|capital]].<ref>W. Mayer, "Nabonidus Herkunft", in M. Dietrich and O. Loretz (eds.), ''Dubsar anta-men: Studien zur Altorientalistik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 1998), 245-61; {{cite journal
|quotes =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|date =
|year = 2004
|month =
|title = National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Chaldean Empire and Chaldean Identity in Post-Empire Times
|journal = [[Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies]]
|volume = 18
|issue = 2
|pages = pp. 19
|publisher = JAAS
|location =
|issn =
|pmid =
|doi =
|bibcode =
|oclc =
|id =
|url = http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v18n2/Parpola-identity_Article%20-Final.pdf
|format = PDF
|accessdate =
|laysummary =
|laysource =
|laydate =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
}}
Similarly: {{cite web
|url = http://www.nineveh.com/Assyrians%20after%20Assyria.html
|title = Assyrians after Assyria
|accessdate =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|last =
|first =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
|coauthors =
|date =
|year =
|month =
|work =
|publisher = University of Helsinki, The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project (State Archives of Assyria)
|pages =
|doi =
|archiveurl =
|archivedate =
}}</ref> However, it has been pointed out that Nabonidus' royal propaganda was hardly different from his predecessors, while his Persian successor, [[Cyrus the Great]], also referred to Ashurbanipal in the [[Cyrus cylinder]].<ref>A. Kuhrt, "'Ex oriente lux': How we may widen our perspectives on ancient history", in R. Rollinger, A. Luther and J. Wiesehöfer (eds.), ''Getrennte Wege? Kommunikation, Raum und Wahrnehmung in der alten Welt'' (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Antike 2007), 617-32.</ref> He certainly did not belong to the previous ruling dynasty, the [[Chaldea]]ns, of whom [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] was the most famous member. He came to the throne in 556 BC by overthrowing the young king [[Labashi-Marduk]].

===Reign=== 
Nabonidus took an interest in Babylon's past, excavating ancient buildings and displaying his archeological discoveries in a museum. In most ancient accounts, he is depicted as a royal anomaly. Nabonidus is supposed to have worshiped the moon-god Sîn beyond all the other gods, to have paid special devotion to Sîn's temple in Harran, where his mother was a priestess, and to have neglected the Babylonian primary god, [[Marduk]]. Because of the tensions that these religious reforms generated, he had to leave the capital for the desert oasis of [[Tayma]] in Arabia early in his reign, from which he only returned after many years. In the meantime, his son [[Belshazzar]] ruled from Babylon.

====Contributions==== 
Nabonidus is most revered and is known as the first archaeologist.<ref>{{cite web|last=Watrall|first=Ethan|title=ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2|url=http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf>.|publisher=Anthropology.msu.edu|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu, (both located in Sippar), and the sanctuary of Naram-Sin, the moon god, located in Harran, but he also had them restored to their former glory.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lendering|first=Jona|title=Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar|url=http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html>|publisher=Livius.org|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=K. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=k. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref>).

====Religious policy==== 
Although Nabonidus' personal preference for Sîn is clear, the strength of this preference divides scholars. While some claim that it is obvious from his inscriptions that he became almost [[Henotheism|henotheistic]],<ref>Beaulieu 1989:46-65; Machinist/Tadmor 1993.</ref> others consider Nabonidus to have been similar to other Babylonian rulers, in that he respected the other cults and religions in his kingdom.<ref>Kuhrt 1990.</ref> His negative image could then be blamed on the Marduk priesthood, that resented Nabonidus' long absence from Babylon during his stay in Tayma, during which the important, Marduk-related [[Akitu|New Year (Akītu-)Festival]] could not take place, and his emphasis on Sîn. In any case, there is no sign of the civil unrest during his reign that would have been indicative of trouble.


Part of the propaganda issued by both the Marduk priesthood and Cyrus is the story of Nabonidus taking the most important [[cult]]ic [[statue]]s from southern [[Mesopotamia]] [[hostage]] in Babylon. This seems to be correct: a great number of contemporary inscriptions shows that these statues and their cultic personnel were indeed brought to Babylon just before the Persian attack:


{{Quote|"In the month of [Âbu?] Lugal-Marada and the other gods of the town Marad, Zabada and the other gods of Kish, the goddess Ninlil and the other gods of Hursagkalama visited Babylon. Till the end of the month Ulûlu all the gods of Akkad -those from above and those from below- entered Babylon. The gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and Sippar did not enter."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}


However, modern [[scholarship]] has provided an explanation for this action. In Mesopotamia, [[deity|gods]] were supposed to be housed inside their statues, from where they took care of their cities. But this only happened if they received the right kind of attention. So Nabonidus took special care of these statues and made sure that their cultic personnel had to come along with him.<ref>P.-A. Beaulieu, "An episode in the fall of Babylon to the Persians", ''[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]'' 52 (1993:241-61)</ref> This was a long-standing tradition, too:


{{Quote|"One of the most powerful illustrations of the strength and conviction of image worship in ancient Mesopotamia is probably the treatment of cult statues in times of war. Assyrian and Babylonian sources of the first millennium frequently allude to the removal of divine statues from the temples as the result of a city being conquered. Spoliated statues were usually carried off to the land of the victorious power (Assyria in most known cases) where they remained in captivity until a turn of events would allow them to be restored to their shrines. (...) Rather than incur the capture of their gods and the resulting implications of such capture, namely, that the gods were abandoning the city and calling for its destruction, cities often tried to prevent the transfer of the statues to enemy territory, since continued possession of them in the face of adversity proved that the gods were still protecting and supporting their people and native land. (...) [D]uring the months which preceded the invasion and conquest of Babylonia by the Persians in 539 BC, King Nabonidus ordered a massive gathering of the gods of Sumer and Akkad into the capital. Unlike previous attempts, the gathering ordered by Nabonidus is documented by a number of historical and archival sources." [after this, Beaulieu goes on to discuss these sources in detail]|[[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]] 1993:241-2}}


But this exposed him to criticism by his enemies, notably Cyrus, who was trying to show why he was a better king than Nabonidus had been, and took this as an example of Nabonidus lack of fitness to rule.<ref name=persianpropaganda>Beaulieu 1993; A. Kuhrt, "The Cyrus cylinder and Achaemenid imperial policy", ''[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament]]'' 25 (1983:83-97).</ref> In the words of, again, Beaulieu:


{{Quote|"The returning of the statues to their sanctuaries provided Cyrus with one of his many propagandistic anti-Nabonidus themes. Not content with re-establishing the gods in their residence, he charged the deposed king with having brought them to the capital against their will."|P.-A. Beaulieu 1993:243}}


And in the words of Cyrus himself, as recorded on the Cyrus Cylinder, found in Babylon in 1879:


{{Quote|"As for the gods of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus, to the wrath of the lord of the gods, brought to Babylon, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I (Cyrus) caused them to dwell in peace in their sanctuaries, (in) pleasing dwellings. May all the gods I brought (back) to their sanctuaries plead daily before Bel and Nabu for the lengthening of my days, may they intercede favorably on my behalf."|Cyrus Cylinder, 30-34}}


This is confirmed by the [[Babylonian Chronicles]]:


{{Quote|"From the month of Kislîmu to the month of Addaru, the gods of Akkad which Nabonidus had made come down to Babylon, were returned to their sacred cities."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

====Nabonidus' stay in Tayma==== 
It is not clear yet why Nabonidus stayed in Tayma for so long. His reason for going there seems clear: Tayma was an important oasis, from where lucrative [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian]] [[trade route]]s could be controlled. The Chaldeans before him had already attempted to do the same.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205. On Tayma's importance for trade: C. Edens and G. Bawden, "History of Tayma' and Hejazi trade during the first millennium B.C.", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 32 (1989:48-103).</ref> However, why Nabonidus stayed for so long (probably about ten years, perhaps from 553-543 BC) and why he returned when he did remain unresolved questions. It has been proposed that this was because he did not feel at home in Babylon, which was opposed to his emphasis on Sîn. Regarding his return, this may have had to do with the mounting threat of Cyrus and growing disagreements with Belshazzar, who was relieved of his command directly after Nabonidus had come back, along with a number of administrators.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205.</ref> During his stay, Nabonidus adorned Tayma with a complex of royal buildings, most of which have come to light during recent excavations.<ref>An overview of the history of Tayma, current archaeological work, as well as bibliographical references, are given in {{cite web | title=Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: Tayma | url=http://www.dainst.org/index_3258_en.html | accessdate=2007-10-16}} Also: H. Hayajneh, "First evidence of Nabonidus in the Ancient North Arabian inscriptions from the region of Tayma", ''Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies'' 31 (2001:81-95).</ref>

===The Persian conquest of Babylonia=== 
Different accounts of the fall of Babylon survive. According to the Cyrus Cylinder, the people opened their gates for Cyrus and greeted him as their liberator. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 40-55 prophesied that the Persians would carry off Babylonian women and cultic statues. [[Herodotus]] said that Cyrus defeated the Babylonians outside their city, after which a [[siege]] began. When this took too long, Cyrus diverted the [[Euphrates]], so that his troops could march into the city through the river bed.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 1.188-191</ref> [[Xenophon]] had a similar view, but he did not mention the battle.<ref>Xenophon, ''[[Cyropaedia]]'' 7.5.1-36</ref> Finally, [[Berossus]] claimed that Cyrus beat the Babylonian army, but this time, Nabonidus was supposed to have fled to nearby [[Borsippa]]. There he hid, while Cyrus took Babylon and demolished its outer walls. When Cyrus turned towards Borsippa, Nabonidus soon surrendered.<ref>From the ''Babyloniaca'': [[Fragmente der griechischen Historiker]] 680F9a = [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]], ''[[Against Apion]]'' 1.149-153.</ref>


As these accounts contradict each other, (the Cyrus Cylinder and Isaiah; for the latter, see [[Cyrus (Bible)|Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition]]), [[oral tradition]]s (Herodotus and Xenophon) and conflicting records (Berossus), they are quite confusing. The [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] is more helpful. This is a part of the Babylonian Chronicles, which are concise, factual accounts of historical events, and are therefore considered to be very reliable, although not very informative.<ref>R.J. van der Spek, "{{cite web | title = Review of J.-J. Glassner, ''Mesopotamian chronicles'' (ed. B. Foster) (Leiden: Brill 2004) | url = http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/4467_4512.pdf}}", ''Review of Biblical Literature'' (2005/09).</ref> Regarding the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, this text says:


{{Quote|"In the month of [[Tašrîtu]], when Cyrus attacked the army of Akkad in Opis [i.e., Baghdad] on the Tigris, the inhabitants of Akkad revolted, but he [Cyrus or Nabonidus?] massacred the confused inhabitants. The fifteenth day [12 October], Sippar was seized without battle. Nabonidus fled. The sixteenth day, Gobryas [litt: Ugbaru], the governor of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle. Afterwards, Nabonidus was arrested in Babylon when he returned there. Till the end of the month, the shield carrying Gutians were staying within Esagila but nobody carried arms in Esagila and its buildings. The correct time for a ceremony was not missed.


In the month of Arahsamna, the third day [29 October], Cyrus entered Babylon, green twigs were spread in front of him - the state of peace was imposed upon the city. Cyrus sent greetings to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, installed subgovernors in Babylon."|{{cite web | title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus | url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}


Additionally, a building inscription has been found which mentions the restoration of the [[Enlil]] [[Gate]] of Babylon shortly after its capture. Based on this information, the following reconstruction has been proposed:<ref>P. Briant, ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A history of the Persian Empire'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2002), 50-5, 80-7; G. Tolini, "{{cite web|title = Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylon par Cyrus (octobre 539 av. J.-C.)|url = http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/enligne/arta/pdf/2005.003-Tolini.pdf}}", ''Arta'' (2005/03); A. Kuhrt, "{{cite web|title = Ancient Near Eastern history: The case of Cyrus the Great of Persia|url = http://www.proc.britac.ac.uk/tfiles/237224A/143p107.pdf}}", in H.G.M. Williamson (ed.), ''{{cite web|title = Understanding the history of ancient Israel|url = http://www.britac.ac.uk/pubs/cat/pba143.html}}'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 107-27.</ref> When Cyrus attempted to march into southern Mesopotamia, he was met by the Babylonians near [[Opis]]. In the ensuing battle, the Persians were victorious. This in turn led to the nearby city of [[Sippar]] surrendering. Meanwhile, the Babylonians had withdrawn south to establish a line of defence near the Euphrates that was intended to prevent Cyrus from advancing too far. However, Cyrus' forces did not challenge the Babylonian army. Rather, he sent a small force south along the [[Tigris]] to try to take the capital by surprise. This plan worked: the Persian troops reached Babylon undetected and caught it unawares, meeting only minor resistance near one of its gates. Thus, they were not only able to capture Babylon, but also King Nabonidus.


This left the Babylonian army in an untenable position and it soon surrendered. In the meantime, [[Gubaru|Ugbaru]], the commander of the Persian forces that had captured Babylon, had taken good care that his men would not plunder or otherwise harm the city. He had even made sure that the temple rites continued to be observed. Nonetheless, it still took Cyrus almost a month before he proceeded towards the city. As many Babylonian officials as well as the Babylonian administrative system stayed in place after the transition of power, it has been surmised that this time was spent on negotiations with representatives from the city;<ref>J. Wiesehöfer, "Kontinuität oder Zäsur? Babylon under den Achaimeniden", in J. Renger (ed.), ''Babylon: Focus Mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamheit, Mythos in der Moderne'' (Saarbrücken: SDV 1999), 167-88; M. Jursa, "The transition of Babylonia from the Neo-Babylonian empire to Achaemenid rule", in H. Crawford (ed.), ''Regime change in the ancient Near East and Egypt: From Sargon of Agade to Saddam Hussein'' (New York: Oxford University Press 2007), 73-94.</ref> this is similar to what happened when the Neo-Chaldean king [[Sargon II]] and later [[Alexander the Great]] took the city.<ref>Kuhrt 2007 ("'Ex oriente lux'...").</ref>

===Death=== 
The final fate of Nabonidus is uncertain. Cyrus was known to spare the lives of some kings he had defeated, for example King [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]], who, after his defeat, was allowed to live at King Cyrus's court as an advisor. This is according to [[Herodotus]], who also states that Croesus was first sentenced to death by burning and was only allowed to live after showing his wisdom.<ref>1.86-88</ref> [[Bacchylides]] tells us that [[Apollo]] snatched up Croesus just before the flames were about to burn him, and took him to the [[Hyperboreans]]. In the reference in the Nabonidus Chronicle to a campaign by Cyrus in (possibly) 547 BC, during which a country was taken and its king killed, the text showing the name of the country is damaged, although it may be [[Urartu]].<ref>J. Oelsner, "Review of R. Rollinger, ''Herodots babylonischer logos: Eine kritische Untersuchung der Glaubwürdigkeitsdiskussion'' (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft 1993)", ''Archiv für Orientforschung'' '''46/47''' (1999/2000:378-80); R. Rollinger, "The Median "empire", the end of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great campaign in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)", ''Ancient West & East'' '''7''' (2008:49-63).</ref> Accounts by Berossus and the retrospective Hellenistic Babylonian dynastic prophecies state that he was allowed to retire to live in [[Kermān Province|Carmania]].

==In popular culture== 
*Nabonidus is portrayed by [[Carl Stockdale]] in [[D. W. Griffith]]'s classic 1916 [[silent film]] ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]''.

==See also== 
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Kings of Babylonia]]
*[[Cylinder of Nabonidus]]
*[[Ennigaldi ("Ennigaldi-Nanna")]], daughter
*[[Nabonidus Chronicle]]
*[[Croesus#Apollo.27s intervention|Croesus]]

==References== 
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links== 
*[http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cylinder_of_nabonidus.aspx Cylinder of Nabonidus] at the [[British Museum]].
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar] Translation.
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder-ur.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur] Translation.
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/epigraphy/e_pre-islamic/fig13-lihyanite3.htm Lihyanite inscription of Nabonidus, at Nat. Museum of Natural History site]
*[http://www.nabonidus.org Nabonidus archaeology ]
{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]|before=[[Labashi-Marduk]]|after=[[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)|years=556–539 BC}}
{{S-end}}


{{Persondata 
|NAME = Nabonidus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = King of Babylon
|DATE OF BIRTH =
|PLACE OF BIRTH =
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
[[Category:539 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Chaldean kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian people]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:6th-century BC rulers]]

Translations:Chaldean Catholic Church/Page display title/en

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Chaldean Catholic Church

Chaldean Catholic Church/en

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<languages/>
{{About|Chaldean church in Mesopotamia Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Iran|Church of the East in India|Chaldean Syrian Church}}
{{Infobox Orthodox Church|
|show_name = Chaldean Catholic Church ܥܕܬܐ ܟܠܕܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝܬܐ ''Ecclesia Chaldaeorum Catholica''
|image = [[File:Patriarchum Babylonensis Chaldenorum.jpg|200px]]
|caption = Emblem of the [[List of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon|Chaldean Patriarchate]]
|founder = Traces ultimate origins to [[Thomas the Apostle]], [[Addai]] and [[Saint Mari|Mari]]; emerged from the [[Church of the East]] in the 3rd Century
|independence = [[Apostolic Age|Apostolic Era]]
|recognition = [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]
|primate = [[Louis Raphaël I Sako]]
|headquarters = [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]]
|territory = [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], [[Israel]], [[Egypt]], [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Greece]], [[Netherlands]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Georgia (country)]], [[Sweden]], [[United Kingdom]]

|language = [[Chaldean language|Chaldean]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnewa.org/default.aspx?ID=59&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |title=The Chaldean Catholic Church |publisher=CNEWA |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref> [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
|population = 2,500,000<ref name="CNEWA website">{{cite web
|url=http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat10.pdf
|author=Ronald Roberson
|title=The Eastern Catholic Churches 2010
|publisher=Catholic Near East Welfare Association
|accessdate=December 2010}} Information sourced from ''Annuario Pontificio'' 2010 edition</ref><ref name=cnewa.org>[http://www.cnewa.org/ecc-bodypg-us.aspx?eccpageID=59&IndexView=toc CNEWA - Chaldean Catholic Church]</ref>
|website = http://www.saint-adday.com/
}}
The '''Chaldean Catholic Church''' ({{lang-syc|ܥܕܬܐ ܟܠܕܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝܬܐ}}, ''ʿītha kaldetha qāthuliqetha''), is an [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern]] [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac]] [[Particular church#Autonomous particular Churches or Rites|particular church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], under the [[Apostolic see|Holy See]] of the [[Catholicos]]-[[Patriarch of Babylon]], maintaining [[full communion]] with the [[Bishop of Rome]] and the rest of the Catholic Church. The Chaldean Catholic Church presently comprises an estimated 2,500,000 people who are ethnic [[Chaldean people|Chaldeans]]

==Chaldean Church History==
The history of the Chaldean Church is the history of the [[Church of the East]] founded between the 1st and 2nd centuries AD in Mesopotamia [[Chaldea]] (Chaldeans ruled [[Mesopotamia]]) — represented today by at least eleven different churches, (then ruled by the successive Parthian and Sassanid Empires, where it was known by derivative names for Chaldea) — between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD. The region of Chaldea was also the birthplace of the [[Syriac language]] and [[Syriac script]], both of which remain important within all strands of [[Syriac Christianity]].

It was originally a part of [[The Church of the East]] before the 1553 consecration of [[Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa]] who entered communion with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], when it was renamed the ''Church of Mosul''. Subsequent to this, it was again renamed by Rome in 1683 as the Chaldean Catholic Church in recognition of the native Chaldean people of Mesopotamia Iraq where Father Ibrahim was raised and lived at UR of Chaldeans.

After the extensive massacres of Chaldean and other Christians by [[Tamerlane]] around 1400 AD had devastated many Chaldean bishoprics and finally destroyed the 4000 year old city of [[Nineveh]], the Church of the East — which had extended as far as [[China]], [[Central Asia]], [[Mongolia]] and [[India]] — was largely reduced to [[Mesopotamia]], its place of origin. It was followed by its core founders of [[Eastern Aramaic]] speaking ethnic [[Chaldean people|Chaldean]]s who lived largely in Mesopotamia between [[Diyarbakır|Amid (Diyarbakır)]], [[Mardin]], [[Harran]] and [[Hakkari]] in the north to [[Mosul]], [[Irbil]] and [[Kirkuk]] in the south, and from [[Salmas]] and [[Urmia]] in the east to [[Al-Hassakeh]], [[Tur Abdin]] and [[Edessa]] in the west; an area approximately encompassing ancient [[Chaldea]].

===1552: Yohannan Sulaqa===
Dissent over the hereditary succession grew until 1552, when a group of Chaldean bishops, from the northern regions of [[Amid]] and [[Salmas]], elected a priest, Mar [[Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa|Yohannan Sulaqa]], as a rival patriarch. To look for a bishop of [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] rank to consecrate him patriarch, Sulaqa traveled to the [[pope]] in Rome and entered into communion with the [[Catholic Church]], after first being refused by the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]. In 1553 he was consecrated bishop and elevated to the rank of patriarch taking the name of Mar Shimun VIII. He was granted the title of "Patriarch of the Chaldeans", and his church was named ''The Church of Mosul''.

Mar Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa returned to northern [[Mesopotamia]] in the same year and fixed his seat in [[Amid]]. Before being put to death by the radical Nestorians of the [[Church of the East]] patriarch of [[Alqosh]],<ref name="Frazee" />{{rp|57}} he ordained five metropolitan Chaldean bishops thus beginning a new ecclesiastical hierarchy: the patriarchal line known as the ''Shimun line''. The area of influence of this patriarchate soon moved from Amid east, fixing the See, after many places, in the Chaldean village of [[Qochanis]].

The connections with Rome loosened up under Sulaqa's successors: The last patriarch to be formally recognized by the Pope died in 1600, the hereditary of the office was reintroduced and, in 1692, the [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome was formally broken, with this part of the church once more rejoining the [[Church of the East]].
[[File:Chaldean Bishops worldwide.jpg|thumb|Chaldean Bishops worldwide representing the Chaldean Church led by Chaldean Cardinal Emmanuel Delly III visit the Holy Pope, The Vatican, Italy, 2013]]
{{See also|Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa}}

===1672: The ''Josephite line'' of Amid===
In 1672, 'Chaldean' Patriarchate Chaldean [[Joseph I (Chaldean Patriarch)|Mar Joseph I]], Archbishop of Amid, entered in [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome. In 1681 the [[Holy See]] granted him the title of "Patriarch of the Chaldeans deprived of its patriarch."

The 'Chaldean Catholic' arose due to a Catholic [[Latin language|Latin]] in recognition of the native Chaldean people of Mesopotamia and of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Ur Kasdim'' (according to long held Jewish tradition, the birthplace of Abraham in northern Mesopotamia) as meaning ''Ur of the Chaldees''.<ref>''Biblical Archaeology Review'', May/June 2001: Where Was Abraham's Ur? by Allan R. Millard</ref>

The 'Chaldean Catholic' is historically, usually and properly taken purely as a [[doctrinal]] and [[theological]] term for Chaldean People believers of Catholicism.<ref>Travis, Hannibal. ''Genocide in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire, Iraq, and Sudan''. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010, 2007, pp. 237-77, 293–294</ref><ref name="conference.osu.eu">http://conference.osu.eu/globalization/publ/08-bohac.pdf</ref><ref name="conference.osu.eu" /> The modern Chaldean Catholics are [[Chaldean people| Chaldeans]]<ref>Nisan, M. 2002. ''[http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/14225.html Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle for Self Expression]''. Jefferson: McFarland & Company.</ref> and originated from ancient Chaldean communities living in and indigenous to the north of Iraq/Upper Mesopotamia which was known as Chaldea from the 25th century BC until the 7th century AD.

All Joseph I's successors took the name of Joseph. The life of this patriarchate was difficult: at the beginning due to the vexations from the traditionalists, under which they were subject from a legal point of view, and later it struggled with financial difficulties due to the tax burden imposed by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] authorities.
[[File:Two Chaldean bishops ordination (Bishop Baselio Yaldo and Bishop Shaleta).jpg|thumb|Chaldean Bishops Ordination in Michigan 2015 (Bishop Yaldo and Bishop Shalita)]]
[[File:Diyarbakir P1050612 20080427130622.JPG|thumb|Chaldean Monastery, Dyar Bakir, Turkey, Established 3rd Century AD]]
Nevertheless its influence expanded from the original towns of [[Amid]] and [[Mardin]] towards the area of [[Mosul]] and the [[Nineveh plains]]. The ''Josephite line'' unified in 1830 with the Chaldean [[Alqosh]] patriarchate that in the meantime entered in [[full communion]] with Rome.

===The Alqosh Patriarchate in communion with Rome===

The largest and oldest [[episcopal see|patriarchal see]] of the Chaldean Church of the East was based at the [[Rabban Hormizd Monastery|Rabban Hormizd]] monastery of Alqosh. It spread from [[Aqrah]] up to [[Siirt|Seert]] and [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]], covering in the south the rich plain of [[Mosul]]. Already in the short period between 1610 and 1617 it entered in [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome, and in 1771 the patriarch Eliya Denkha signed a Catholic confession of faith, but no formal union resulted. When Eliya Denkha died, his succession was disputed by two cousins: Eliyya Isho-Yab, who was recognized by Rome but soon broke the communion, and [[Yohannan Hormizd]], who considered himself a Catholic.

In 1804, after Eliyya Isho-Yab's death, Yohannan Hormizd remained the only patriarch of Alqosh. There were thus two patriarchates in communion with Rome, the larger one in Alqosh, and in Amid that ruled by [[Augustine Hindi|Augustine (Yousef V) Hindi]]. Rome did not want to choose between the two candidates and granted neither the title of Patriarch, even if from 1811 it was Augustine Hindi who ruled the Church. After Hindi's death, on the July 5, 1830, Yohannan Hormizd was formally confirmed Patriarch by [[Pope Pius VIII]] with the title of "Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans."<ref name="angold">{{cite book|last=O’Mahony |first=Anthony |editor=Angold, Michael |title=Eastern Christianity |series=Cambridge History of Christianity|volume=5|year=2006|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-81113-2 |chapter=Syriac Christianity in the modern Middle East}}</ref>{{rp|528}} The merger of the patriarchates of Alqosh and Amid was completed.

===19th century: expansion and disaster===
[[File:King Faisal I with Chaldean bishops (1852 1947).jpg|thumbnail|[[Faisal I of Iraq]] with all the Chaldean bishops and the Patriarch [[Yousef VI Emmanuel II Thomas]], 1921 ]]
The following years of the Chaldean Church were marked by externally originating violence: in 1838 the monastery of [[Rabban Hormizd Monastery|Rabban Hormizd]] and the town of Alqosh was attacked by the [[Kurds]] of [[Soran Emirate|Soran]] and hundreds of Christian Chaldeans died.<ref name="Wilm">David Wilmshurst, ''The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318-1913'', Peeters Publishers, 2000 ISBN 90-429-0876-9</ref>{{rp|32}} In 1843 the Kurds started to collect as much money as they could from Chaldean villages, killing those who refused: more than 10,000 Chaldean Christians of all denominations were killed and the icons of the Rabban Hormizd monastery defaced.<ref name="Frazee" />{{rp|298}}{{Eastern Catholicism}}In 1846 the Chaldean Church was recognized by the [[Ottoman Empire]] as a '[[millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]]', a distinctive 'religious community' in the Empire, thus obtaining its civic emancipation.<ref name="angold">Michael Angold ''Eastern Christianity'', Cambridge University Press, 2006 ISBN 0-521-81113-9 pag 528</ref> The most famous patriarch of the Chaldean Church in the 19th century was [[Joseph Audo|Joseph VI Audo]] who is remembered also for his clashes with [[Pope Pius IX]] mainly about his attempts to extend the Chaldean jurisdiction over the Indian [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]. This was a period of expansion for the Chaldean Catholic Church.[[File:Church-In Basra-Iraq كنيسة في البصرة العراق.JPG|thumbnail|A [[Chaldean Catholic]] Church in [[Basra]] 2014]]In the early 20th century massacres and continuation of the [[Chaldean Genocide]] died from cold in the winter or hunger. The disaster struck mainly the regions of the Chaldean Church of the East and the Chaldean dioceses in north Chaldea (Amid, [[Siirt]] and [[Gazarta]]) were ruined (the Chaldeans metropolitans [[Addai Scher]] of [[Siirt]] and [[Philip Abraham]] of [[Gazarta]] were killed in 1915).<ref name="Wilm" />{{rp|37}}

A further massacre occurred in 1933 at the hands of the [[Iraqi Army]], in the form of the [[Simele massacre]], which resulted in thousands of deaths.

===21st century: eparchies around the world===
A recent development in the Chaldean Catholic Church has been the creation in 2006 of the [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle|Eparchy of Oceania]], with the title of 'St Thomas the Apostle of Sydney of the Chaldeans'.<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|diocese|dsych|Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Sydney (Chaldean)|21 January 2015}}</ref> This jurisdiction includes the Chaldean Catholic communities of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and the first Bishop, named by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] on 21 October 2006, is Archbishop [[Jibrail Kassab|Djibrail (Jibrail) Kassab]], until this date, Archbishop of [[Bassorah]] in Iraq.<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|bishop|bkassab|Archbishop Djibrail Kassab|21 January 2015}}</ref>

There has been a large immigration to the [[United States]] particularly to [[southeast Michigan]].<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|diocese|ddech|Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit (Chaldean)|21 January 2015}}</ref> Although the largest population resides in southeast Michigan, there are populations in parts of [[California]] and [[Arizona]] as well. [[Canada]] in recent years has shown growing communities in both eastern provinces, such as [[Ontario]], and in western Canada, such as [[Saskatchewan]].

In 2008, Mar Bawai Soro of the [[Church of the East]] and 1,000 Chaldean families were received into full communion with the Chaldean Catholic Church from the Chaldean Church of the East.<ref name="Assyrian Bishop Mar Bawai Soto explains his journey into communion with the Catholic Church">{{cite web
|url= http://www.kaldaya.net/2008/DailyNews/06/June06_08_E1_MARBAWAI.html
|title=Assyrian Bishop Mar Bawai Soto explains his journey into communion with the Catholic Church
|work=kaldaya.net
|accessdate=11 September 2012
}}</ref>

On Friday, June 10, 2011, [[Pope Benedict XVI]] erected a new Chaldean Catholic eparchy in [[Toronto, Canada]] and named [[Archbishop]] Mar [[Yohannan Zora]], who has worked alongside four priests with Catholics in Toronto (the largest community of Chaldeans) for nearly 20 years and who was previously an [[ad personam]] [[Archbishop]] (he will retain this rank as head of the eparchy) and the Archbishop of the Archdiocese (Archeparchy) of [[Ahwaz, Iran]] (since 1974). The new eparchy, or diocese, will be known as the [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Mar Addai]]. There are 38,000 Chaldean Catholics in Canada. Archbishop Zora was born in [[Batnaia, Iraq]], on March 15, 1939. He was ordained in 1962 and worked in Iraqi parishes before being transferred to Iran in 1969.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/briefs/cns/20110610.htm#head5 |title=CNS NEWS BRIEFS Jun-10-2011 |publisher=Catholicnews.com |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref>

The 2006 Australian census counted a total of 4,498 Chaldean Catholics in that country.<ref>{{cite web|author=2006 Religious Affiliation (Full Classification) |url=http://www.census-campaign.org.au/?page_id=27 |title=» 2006 Religious Affiliation (Full Classification) The Census Campaign Australia |publisher=Census-campaign.org.au |date= |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref>

===Persecution in Iraq===
Chaldeans of all denominations, and other religious minorities in Iraq, have endured extensive persecution since 2003, including the abductions and murders of their religious leaders, threats of violence or death if they do not abandon their homes and businesses, and the bombing or destruction of their churches and other places of worship. All this has occurred as anti-Christian emotions rise within Iraq after the American invasion and the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003 and the rise of militant [[Jihadists]] and religious militias.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chaldean.org/Home/tabid/36/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/308/Iraqs-Persecution-of-Christians-Continues-to-Spiral-out-of-Control.aspx |title=Iraq's Persecution of Christians Continues to Spiral out of Control |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref>

Father [[Ragheed Aziz Ganni]], the pastor of the Chaldean Church of the Holy Spirit in [[Mosul]] who graduated from the [[Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas|Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, ''Angelicum'']] in Rome in 2003 with a licentiate in ecumenical theology, was killed on 3 June 2007 in [[Mosul]] alongside the subdeacons Basman Yousef Daud, Wahid Hanna Isho, and Gassan Isam Bidawed, after he celebrated mass.

Chaldean Archbishop [[Paulos Faraj Rahho]] and three companions were abducted on 29 February 2008, in Mosul, and murdered a few days later.

== Structure ==
The Chaldean Catholic Church has the following dioceses:
* Patriarchate of [[Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon|Babylon]]
* Metropolitan Archdioceses of [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Baghdad|Baghdad]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Kirkuk|Kirkuk]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Tehran|Tehran]], [[Chaldean Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Urmya|Urmya]]
* Archdioceses of [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Ahwaz|Ahwaz]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Basra|Basra]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Diyarbakir|Diyarbakir]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Erbil|Erbil]], [[Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Mosul|Mosul]]
* Eparchies of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Aleppe|Aleppe]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Alquoch|Alquoch]], [[Amadiya (Chaldean Diocese)|Amadia]], [[Aqra|Akra]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Beirut|Beirut]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Cairo|Cairo]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Peter The Apostle|St Peter the Apostle of San Diego]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|St Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Mar Addai of Toronto]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle|St Thomas the Apostle of Sydney]], [[Salmas (Chaldean Archdiocese)|Salmas]], [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Sulaimaniya|Sulaimaniya]], [[Zakho (Chaldean Diocese)|Zaku]]
* Territories dependent on the Patriarch: [[Chaldean Catholic Territory Dependent on the Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Chaldean Catholic Territory Dependent on the Patriarch of Jordan|Jordan]]

===Hierarchy===
The current Patriarch is [[Louis Sako]], elected in January 2013. In October 2007, his predecessor, Emmanuel III Delly became the first Chaldean Catholic patriarch to be elevated to the rank of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] within the Catholic Church.<ref>[http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5jrwm778S-HyuIfgZAXj6WPONyV8wD8SB0N8O0 AP]{{dead link|date=November 2012|bot=Legobot}}</ref>

The present Chaldean episcopate (January 2014) is as follows:

*Mar [[Louis Raphael I Sako|Louis Raphaël I Sako]], Patriarch of Babylon (since February 2013);
*Mar [[Emmanuel III Delly]], Patriarch emeritus of Babylon (December 2003 – 2012)
*[[Emil Shimoun Nona]], Archbishop of Mosul (since November 2009);
*[[Bashar Warda]], Archbishop of [[Arbil]] (since July 2010)
*[[Ramzi Garmou]], Archbishop of Teheran (since February 1999);
*Thomas Meram, Archbishop of Urmia and Salmas (since 1984);
*Yohannan Zora, Archbishop of Toronto (since June 2011);
*[[Archbishop Jibrail Kassab|Jibrail Kassab]], Archbishop of Sydney (since October 2006);
*[[Mar Jacques Ishaq]], Titular Archbishop of Nisibis and curial Bishop of Babylon (since December 2005);
*Habib Al-Naufali, Archbishop of Basra (since 2014)
*Yousif Mirkis, Archbishop of Kirkuk and Suleimanya (since 2014)
*Mar Mikha Pola Maqdassi, Bishop of Alqosh (since December 2001)
*[[Mar Shlemon Warduni]], curial Bishop of Babylon (since 2001).
*Mar Saad Sirop, auxiliary Bishop of Babylon (since 2014)
*Mar Antony Audo, Bishop of Aleppo (since January 1992);
*Mar Michael Kassarji, Bishop of Lebanon (since 2001);
*Mar Rabban Al-Qas, Bishop of [[Amadiya (Chaldean Diocese)|{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿ}}Amadiya]] and [[Zakho (Chaldean Diocese)|Zakho]] (since December 2001);
*[[Mar Ibrahim Namo Ibrahim|Mar Ibrahim Ibrahim]], Bishop of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]] (since April 1982 – 2014);
*[[Mar Francis Kalabat]], Bishop of [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit|Saint Thomas the Apostle of Detroit]] (since June 2014)
*[[Mar Sarhad Yawsip Jammo|Mar Sarhad Joseph Jammo]], Bishop of Saint Peter the Apostle of San Diego (since July 2002);
*Mar Bawai Soro, Titular Bishop of Foratiana and auxiliary bishop of Saint Peter the Apostle of San Diego (since 2014)

Several sees are vacant:
Archeparchy of Diyarbakir,
Archeparchy of Ahwaz,
Eparchy of 'Aqra,
Eparchy of Cairo.

==Liturgy==
The Chaldean Catholic Church uses the [[East Syrian Rite]].

A slight reform of the liturgy was effective since 6 January 2007, and it aimed to unify the many different uses of each parish, to remove centuries-old additions that merely imitated the [[Roman Rite]], and for pastoral reasons. The main elements of variations are: the [[Anaphora (liturgy)|Anaphora]] said aloud by the priest, the return to the ancient architecture of the churches, the restoration of the ancient use where the bread and wine are readied before a service begins, and the removal from the [[Credo|Creed]] of the ''[[Filioque]]'' clause.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaldu.org/14_Reformed_ChaldeanMass/QA_NewMass.html |title=TQ & A on the Reformed Chaldean Mass |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon]]
*[[Eastern Catholicism]]
*Liturgies: [[East Syrian Rite]], [[Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari]]
*Film about Chaldean Christians: [[Chaldean Voices]]
*[[Chaldean People]]
*[[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.easterncatholics.net/ Chaldean Catholic Church Mass Times]
*[http://www.cnewa.org/default.aspx?ID=59&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 Article on the Chaldean Catholic Church by Ronald Roberson on the CNEWA web site]
*[http://www.kaldu.org/index.htm Chaldean Catholic Diocese of Saint Peter]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14413a.htm East Syrian Rite] ([[Catholic Encyclopedia]])
*[http://stthomascc.org/daughters-of-mary-immaculate/ Daughters of the Immaculate Conception, a congregation located in Michigan]
*[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20011025_chiesa-caldea-assira_en.html Guidelines for Chaldean Catholics receiving the Eucharist in Assyrian Churches]
*[http://christiansofiraq.com/reply.html History of the Chaldean Church]
*[http://nasrani.net/2008/10/31/qambel-maran-syriac-chants-from-south-india// Qambel Maran- Syriac chants from South India- a review and liturgical music tradition of Syriac Christians revisited]
*[http://pauluschurch.com/ St Pauls Chaldean Assyrian church]
*[http://www.chaldean.org/Home/tabid/36/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/308/Iraqs-Persecution-of-Christians-Continues-to-Spiral-out-of-Control.aspx]
*[http://www.chaldeanfederation.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=53]
*[http://chaldean.org/CommunityPages/ChaldeanChurches/MarAddaiMIUSA/tabid/118/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/440/Chaldeans-in-Baghdad-Celebrate-The-First-Ever-Public-Christmas-Event.aspx]
*[http://www.newsmax.com/KenTimmerman/joseph-kassab-christians-iraq/2010/11/02/id/375698]
{{Chaldean Catholic Hierarchy}}
{{Syriacs}}
{{Catholicism}}

[[Category:Chaldean Catholic Church| ]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism in Iraq]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism]]
[[Category:National churches|Iraq]]
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Translations:Chaldean Catholic Church/1/en

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Translations:Nabonidus/32/en

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Nabonidus/en

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FuzzyBot: Updating to match new version of source page

{{Infobox monarch
| name = Nabû-naʾid
| title = [[List of kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]
| image = Nabonidus.jpg
| caption = Nabonidus in relief showing him praying to the moon, sun and Venus (British Museum)
| reign = ca. 556 – 539 BC
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Labashi-Marduk]]
| successor = [[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)
| spouse =
| royal house =
| father =
| mother =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| buried =
}}


'''Nabonidus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|æ|b|ə|ˈ|n|aɪ|d|ə|s}}; [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] '''Nabû-naʾid''', "[[Nabu]] is praised", نابونيد) is the [[List of Kings of Babylon|last king]] of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], reigning from 556–539 BC.

==Historiography== 
Modern perceptions of Nabonidus' reign has been heavily colored by accounts written well after his reign as king of Babylon, most notably by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]] and the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. As a result, Nabonidus has often been described in very negative terms in both modern and contemporaneous scholarship. However, an accumulation of evidence and a reassessment of existing material has caused opinions on Nabonidus and the events that happened during his reign to alter significantly in recent decades.<ref>See for example in W. von Soden, “Kyros und Nabonid: Propaganda und Gegenpropaganda”, in H. Koch and D.N. MacKenzie (eds.), ''Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte der Achämenidenzeit und ihr Fortleben'' (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1983), 61-8; [[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]], ''The reign of Nabonidus king of Babylon 556-539 B.C.'' (New Haven CT: Yale University Press 1989); A. Kuhrt, “Nabonidus and the Babylonian priesthood”, in M. Beard and J. North (eds.), ''Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world'' (London: Duckworth), 117-55; F. Grant, “Nabonidus, Nabû-šarra-uṣur, and the Eanna temple”, in ''Zeitschrift für Assyriologie'' 81 (1991:37-86); T.G. Lee, “The jasper cylinder seal of Aššurbanipal and Nabonidus’ making of Sîn’s statue”, in Revue d’Assyriologie 87 (1993:131-6); P. Machinist and H. Tadmor, “Heavenly wisdom”, in M.E. Cohen, D.C. Snell and D.B. Weisberg (eds.), ''The tablet and the scroll: Near Eastern studies in honour of William W. Hallo'' (Bethesda MD: CDL Press 1993), 146-51; H. Schaudig, ''Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros’ des Großen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendezschriften: Textausgabe und Grammatik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2001); P.-A. Beaulieu, “Nabonidus the mad king: A reconsideration of his steles from Harran and Babylon”, in M. Heinz and M.H. Feldman (eds.), ''Representations of political power: Case histories from times of change and dissolving order in the ancient Near East'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2007), 137-66.</ref>

==Biography== 

===Ascent=== 
[[Image:Cylinder Nabonidus BM WA91128.jpg|thumb|right|Terracotta cylinder by Nabonidus concerning repairs on the temple of [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]], [[British Museum]]]]
Nabonidus' background is not clear. He said in his inscriptions that he was of unimportant origins.<ref>Collected in Beaulieu 1989.</ref> Similarly, his mother [[Addagoppe of Harran|Addagoppe]], who lived to an old age and may have been connected to the [[temple]] of the [[Lunar Deity|moon-god]] [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]] in [[Harran]], does not mention her family background in her inscriptions. There are two arguments for an [[Assyria]]n background: repeated references in Nabonidus' royal [[propaganda]] and [[imagery]] to [[Ashurbanipal]], the last great [[Neo-Chaldean Empire|Neo-Chaldean]] king; and Nabonidus' originating from, and his special interest in Harran, an Chaldean city and the last stronghold of the Neo-Chaldeans after the fall of [[Nineveh]], their main [[Capital city|capital]].<ref>W. Mayer, "Nabonidus Herkunft", in M. Dietrich and O. Loretz (eds.), ''Dubsar anta-men: Studien zur Altorientalistik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 1998), 245-61; {{cite journal
|quotes =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|date =
|year = 2004
|month =
|title = National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Chaldean Empire and Chaldean Identity in Post-Empire Times
|journal = [[Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies]]
|volume = 18
|issue = 2
|pages = pp. 19
|publisher = JAAS
|location =
|issn =
|pmid =
|doi =
|bibcode =
|oclc =
|id =
|url = http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v18n2/Parpola-identity_Article%20-Final.pdf
|format = PDF
|accessdate =
|laysummary =
|laysource =
|laydate =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
}}
Similarly: {{cite web
|url = http://www.nineveh.com/Assyrians%20after%20Assyria.html
|title = Assyrians after Assyria
|accessdate =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|last =
|first =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
|coauthors =
|date =
|year =
|month =
|work =
|publisher = University of Helsinki, The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project (State Archives of Assyria)
|pages =
|doi =
|archiveurl =
|archivedate =
}}</ref> However, it has been pointed out that Nabonidus' royal propaganda was hardly different from his predecessors, while his Persian successor, [[Cyrus the Great]], also referred to Ashurbanipal in the [[Cyrus cylinder]].<ref>A. Kuhrt, "'Ex oriente lux': How we may widen our perspectives on ancient history", in R. Rollinger, A. Luther and J. Wiesehöfer (eds.), ''Getrennte Wege? Kommunikation, Raum und Wahrnehmung in der alten Welt'' (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Antike 2007), 617-32.</ref> He certainly did not belong to the previous ruling dynasty, the [[Chaldea]]ns, of whom [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] was the most famous member. He came to the throne in 556 BC by overthrowing the young king [[Labashi-Marduk]].

===Reign=== 
Nabonidus took an interest in Babylon's past, excavating ancient buildings and displaying his archeological discoveries in a museum. In most ancient accounts, he is depicted as a royal anomaly. Nabonidus is supposed to have worshiped the moon-god Sîn beyond all the other gods, to have paid special devotion to Sîn's temple in Harran, where his mother was a priestess, and to have neglected the Babylonian primary god, [[Marduk]]. Because of the tensions that these religious reforms generated, he had to leave the capital for the desert oasis of [[Tayma]] in Arabia early in his reign, from which he only returned after many years. In the meantime, his son [[Belshazzar]] ruled from Babylon.

====Contributions==== 
Nabonidus is most revered and is known as the first archaeologist.<ref>{{cite web|last=Watrall|first=Ethan|title=ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2|url=http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf>.|publisher=Anthropology.msu.edu|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu, (both located in Sippar), and the sanctuary of Naram-Sin, the moon god, located in Harran, but he also had them restored to their former glory.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lendering|first=Jona|title=Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar|url=http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html>|publisher=Livius.org|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=K. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=k. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref>).

====Religious policy==== 
Although Nabonidus' personal preference for Sîn is clear, the strength of this preference divides scholars. While some claim that it is obvious from his inscriptions that he became almost [[Henotheism|henotheistic]],<ref>Beaulieu 1989:46-65; Machinist/Tadmor 1993.</ref> others consider Nabonidus to have been similar to other Babylonian rulers, in that he respected the other cults and religions in his kingdom.<ref>Kuhrt 1990.</ref> His negative image could then be blamed on the Marduk priesthood, that resented Nabonidus' long absence from Babylon during his stay in Tayma, during which the important, Marduk-related [[Akitu|New Year (Akītu-)Festival]] could not take place, and his emphasis on Sîn. In any case, there is no sign of the civil unrest during his reign that would have been indicative of trouble.


Part of the propaganda issued by both the Marduk priesthood and Cyrus is the story of Nabonidus taking the most important [[cult]]ic [[statue]]s from southern [[Mesopotamia]] [[hostage]] in Babylon. This seems to be correct: a great number of contemporary inscriptions shows that these statues and their cultic personnel were indeed brought to Babylon just before the Persian attack:


{{Quote|"In the month of [Âbu?] Lugal-Marada and the other gods of the town Marad, Zabada and the other gods of Kish, the goddess Ninlil and the other gods of Hursagkalama visited Babylon. Till the end of the month Ulûlu all the gods of Akkad -those from above and those from below- entered Babylon. The gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and Sippar did not enter."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}


However, modern [[scholarship]] has provided an explanation for this action. In Mesopotamia, [[deity|gods]] were supposed to be housed inside their statues, from where they took care of their cities. But this only happened if they received the right kind of attention. So Nabonidus took special care of these statues and made sure that their cultic personnel had to come along with him.<ref>P.-A. Beaulieu, "An episode in the fall of Babylon to the Persians", ''[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]'' 52 (1993:241-61)</ref> This was a long-standing tradition, too:


{{Quote|"One of the most powerful illustrations of the strength and conviction of image worship in ancient Mesopotamia is probably the treatment of cult statues in times of war. Assyrian and Babylonian sources of the first millennium frequently allude to the removal of divine statues from the temples as the result of a city being conquered. Spoliated statues were usually carried off to the land of the victorious power (Assyria in most known cases) where they remained in captivity until a turn of events would allow them to be restored to their shrines. (...) Rather than incur the capture of their gods and the resulting implications of such capture, namely, that the gods were abandoning the city and calling for its destruction, cities often tried to prevent the transfer of the statues to enemy territory, since continued possession of them in the face of adversity proved that the gods were still protecting and supporting their people and native land. (...) [D]uring the months which preceded the invasion and conquest of Babylonia by the Persians in 539 BC, King Nabonidus ordered a massive gathering of the gods of Sumer and Akkad into the capital. Unlike previous attempts, the gathering ordered by Nabonidus is documented by a number of historical and archival sources." [after this, Beaulieu goes on to discuss these sources in detail]|[[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]] 1993:241-2}}


But this exposed him to criticism by his enemies, notably Cyrus, who was trying to show why he was a better king than Nabonidus had been, and took this as an example of Nabonidus lack of fitness to rule.<ref name=persianpropaganda>Beaulieu 1993; A. Kuhrt, "The Cyrus cylinder and Achaemenid imperial policy", ''[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament]]'' 25 (1983:83-97).</ref> In the words of, again, Beaulieu:


{{Quote|"The returning of the statues to their sanctuaries provided Cyrus with one of his many propagandistic anti-Nabonidus themes. Not content with re-establishing the gods in their residence, he charged the deposed king with having brought them to the capital against their will."|P.-A. Beaulieu 1993:243}}


And in the words of Cyrus himself, as recorded on the Cyrus Cylinder, found in Babylon in 1879:


{{Quote|"As for the gods of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus, to the wrath of the lord of the gods, brought to Babylon, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I (Cyrus) caused them to dwell in peace in their sanctuaries, (in) pleasing dwellings. May all the gods I brought (back) to their sanctuaries plead daily before Bel and Nabu for the lengthening of my days, may they intercede favorably on my behalf."|Cyrus Cylinder, 30-34}}


This is confirmed by the [[Babylonian Chronicles]]:


{{Quote|"From the month of Kislîmu to the month of Addaru, the gods of Akkad which Nabonidus had made come down to Babylon, were returned to their sacred cities."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

====Nabonidus' stay in Tayma==== 
It is not clear yet why Nabonidus stayed in Tayma for so long. His reason for going there seems clear: Tayma was an important oasis, from where lucrative [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian]] [[trade route]]s could be controlled. The Chaldeans before him had already attempted to do the same.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205. On Tayma's importance for trade: C. Edens and G. Bawden, "History of Tayma' and Hejazi trade during the first millennium B.C.", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 32 (1989:48-103).</ref> However, why Nabonidus stayed for so long (probably about ten years, perhaps from 553-543 BC) and why he returned when he did remain unresolved questions. It has been proposed that this was because he did not feel at home in Babylon, which was opposed to his emphasis on Sîn. Regarding his return, this may have had to do with the mounting threat of Cyrus and growing disagreements with Belshazzar, who was relieved of his command directly after Nabonidus had come back, along with a number of administrators.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205.</ref> During his stay, Nabonidus adorned Tayma with a complex of royal buildings, most of which have come to light during recent excavations.<ref>An overview of the history of Tayma, current archaeological work, as well as bibliographical references, are given in {{cite web | title=Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: Tayma | url=http://www.dainst.org/index_3258_en.html | accessdate=2007-10-16}} Also: H. Hayajneh, "First evidence of Nabonidus in the Ancient North Arabian inscriptions from the region of Tayma", ''Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies'' 31 (2001:81-95).</ref>

===The Persian conquest of Babylonia=== 
Different accounts of the fall of Babylon survive. According to the Cyrus Cylinder, the people opened their gates for Cyrus and greeted him as their liberator. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 40-55 prophesied that the Persians would carry off Babylonian women and cultic statues. [[Herodotus]] said that Cyrus defeated the Babylonians outside their city, after which a [[siege]] began. When this took too long, Cyrus diverted the [[Euphrates]], so that his troops could march into the city through the river bed.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 1.188-191</ref> [[Xenophon]] had a similar view, but he did not mention the battle.<ref>Xenophon, ''[[Cyropaedia]]'' 7.5.1-36</ref> Finally, [[Berossus]] claimed that Cyrus beat the Babylonian army, but this time, Nabonidus was supposed to have fled to nearby [[Borsippa]]. There he hid, while Cyrus took Babylon and demolished its outer walls. When Cyrus turned towards Borsippa, Nabonidus soon surrendered.<ref>From the ''Babyloniaca'': [[Fragmente der griechischen Historiker]] 680F9a = [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]], ''[[Against Apion]]'' 1.149-153.</ref>


As these accounts contradict each other, (the Cyrus Cylinder and Isaiah; for the latter, see [[Cyrus (Bible)|Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition]]), [[oral tradition]]s (Herodotus and Xenophon) and conflicting records (Berossus), they are quite confusing. The [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] is more helpful. This is a part of the Babylonian Chronicles, which are concise, factual accounts of historical events, and are therefore considered to be very reliable, although not very informative.<ref>R.J. van der Spek, "{{cite web | title = Review of J.-J. Glassner, ''Mesopotamian chronicles'' (ed. B. Foster) (Leiden: Brill 2004) | url = http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/4467_4512.pdf}}", ''Review of Biblical Literature'' (2005/09).</ref> Regarding the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, this text says:


{{Quote|"In the month of [[Tašrîtu]], when Cyrus attacked the army of Akkad in Opis [i.e., Baghdad] on the Tigris, the inhabitants of Akkad revolted, but he [Cyrus or Nabonidus?] massacred the confused inhabitants. The fifteenth day [12 October], Sippar was seized without battle. Nabonidus fled. The sixteenth day, Gobryas [litt: Ugbaru], the governor of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle. Afterwards, Nabonidus was arrested in Babylon when he returned there. Till the end of the month, the shield carrying Gutians were staying within Esagila but nobody carried arms in Esagila and its buildings. The correct time for a ceremony was not missed.


In the month of Arahsamna, the third day [29 October], Cyrus entered Babylon, green twigs were spread in front of him - the state of peace was imposed upon the city. Cyrus sent greetings to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, installed subgovernors in Babylon."|{{cite web | title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus | url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}


Additionally, a building inscription has been found which mentions the restoration of the [[Enlil]] [[Gate]] of Babylon shortly after its capture. Based on this information, the following reconstruction has been proposed:<ref>P. Briant, ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A history of the Persian Empire'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2002), 50-5, 80-7; G. Tolini, "{{cite web|title = Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylon par Cyrus (octobre 539 av. J.-C.)|url = http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/enligne/arta/pdf/2005.003-Tolini.pdf}}", ''Arta'' (2005/03); A. Kuhrt, "{{cite web|title = Ancient Near Eastern history: The case of Cyrus the Great of Persia|url = http://www.proc.britac.ac.uk/tfiles/237224A/143p107.pdf}}", in H.G.M. Williamson (ed.), ''{{cite web|title = Understanding the history of ancient Israel|url = http://www.britac.ac.uk/pubs/cat/pba143.html}}'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 107-27.</ref> When Cyrus attempted to march into southern Mesopotamia, he was met by the Babylonians near [[Opis]]. In the ensuing battle, the Persians were victorious. This in turn led to the nearby city of [[Sippar]] surrendering. Meanwhile, the Babylonians had withdrawn south to establish a line of defence near the Euphrates that was intended to prevent Cyrus from advancing too far. However, Cyrus' forces did not challenge the Babylonian army. Rather, he sent a small force south along the [[Tigris]] to try to take the capital by surprise. This plan worked: the Persian troops reached Babylon undetected and caught it unawares, meeting only minor resistance near one of its gates. Thus, they were not only able to capture Babylon, but also King Nabonidus.


This left the Babylonian army in an untenable position and it soon surrendered. In the meantime, [[Gubaru|Ugbaru]], the commander of the Persian forces that had captured Babylon, had taken good care that his men would not plunder or otherwise harm the city. He had even made sure that the temple rites continued to be observed. Nonetheless, it still took Cyrus almost a month before he proceeded towards the city. As many Babylonian officials as well as the Babylonian administrative system stayed in place after the transition of power, it has been surmised that this time was spent on negotiations with representatives from the city;<ref>J. Wiesehöfer, "Kontinuität oder Zäsur? Babylon under den Achaimeniden", in J. Renger (ed.), ''Babylon: Focus Mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamheit, Mythos in der Moderne'' (Saarbrücken: SDV 1999), 167-88; M. Jursa, "The transition of Babylonia from the Neo-Babylonian empire to Achaemenid rule", in H. Crawford (ed.), ''Regime change in the ancient Near East and Egypt: From Sargon of Agade to Saddam Hussein'' (New York: Oxford University Press 2007), 73-94.</ref> this is similar to what happened when the Neo-Chaldean king [[Sargon II]] and later [[Alexander the Great]] took the city.<ref>Kuhrt 2007 ("'Ex oriente lux'...").</ref>

===Death=== 
The final fate of Nabonidus is uncertain. Cyrus was known to spare the lives of some kings he had defeated, for example King [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]], who, after his defeat, was allowed to live at King Cyrus's court as an advisor. This is according to [[Herodotus]], who also states that Croesus was first sentenced to death by burning and was only allowed to live after showing his wisdom.<ref>1.86-88</ref> [[Bacchylides]] tells us that [[Apollo]] snatched up Croesus just before the flames were about to burn him, and took him to the [[Hyperboreans]]. In the reference in the Nabonidus Chronicle to a campaign by Cyrus in (possibly) 547 BC, during which a country was taken and its king killed, the text showing the name of the country is damaged, although it may be [[Urartu]].<ref>J. Oelsner, "Review of R. Rollinger, ''Herodots babylonischer logos: Eine kritische Untersuchung der Glaubwürdigkeitsdiskussion'' (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft 1993)", ''Archiv für Orientforschung'' '''46/47''' (1999/2000:378-80); R. Rollinger, "The Median "empire", the end of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great campaign in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)", ''Ancient West & East'' '''7''' (2008:49-63).</ref> Accounts by Berossus and the retrospective Hellenistic Babylonian dynastic prophecies state that he was allowed to retire to live in [[Kermān Province|Carmania]].

==In popular culture== 
*Nabonidus is portrayed by [[Carl Stockdale]] in [[D. W. Griffith]]'s classic 1916 [[silent film]] ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]''.

==See also== 
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Kings of Babylonia]]
*[[Cylinder of Nabonidus]]
*[[Ennigaldi ("Ennigaldi-Nanna")]], daughter
*[[Nabonidus Chronicle]]
*[[Croesus#Apollo.27s intervention|Croesus]]

==References== 
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links== 
*[http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cylinder_of_nabonidus.aspx Cylinder of Nabonidus] at the [[British Museum]].
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar] Translation.
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder-ur.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur] Translation.
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/epigraphy/e_pre-islamic/fig13-lihyanite3.htm Lihyanite inscription of Nabonidus, at Nat. Museum of Natural History site]
*[http://www.nabonidus.org Nabonidus archaeology ]
{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]|before=[[Labashi-Marduk]]|after=[[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)|years=556–539 BC}}
{{S-end}}


{{Persondata 
|NAME = Nabonidus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = King of Babylon
|DATE OF BIRTH =
|PLACE OF BIRTH =
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
[[Category:539 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Chaldean kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian people]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:6th-century BC rulers]]

Nabonidus/en

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FuzzyBot: Updating to match new version of source page

{{Infobox monarch
| name = Nabû-naʾid
| title = [[List of kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]
| image = Nabonidus.jpg
| caption = Nabonidus in relief showing him praying to the moon, sun and Venus (British Museum)
| reign = ca. 556 – 539 BC
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Labashi-Marduk]]
| successor = [[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)
| spouse =
| royal house =
| father =
| mother =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| buried =
}}


'''Nabonidus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|æ|b|ə|ˈ|n|aɪ|d|ə|s}}; [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] '''Nabû-naʾid''', "[[Nabu]] is praised", نابونيد) is the [[List of Kings of Babylon|last king]] of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], reigning from 556–539 BC.

==Historiography== 
Modern perceptions of Nabonidus' reign has been heavily colored by accounts written well after his reign as king of Babylon, most notably by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]] and the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. As a result, Nabonidus has often been described in very negative terms in both modern and contemporaneous scholarship. However, an accumulation of evidence and a reassessment of existing material has caused opinions on Nabonidus and the events that happened during his reign to alter significantly in recent decades.<ref>See for example in W. von Soden, “Kyros und Nabonid: Propaganda und Gegenpropaganda”, in H. Koch and D.N. MacKenzie (eds.), ''Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte der Achämenidenzeit und ihr Fortleben'' (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1983), 61-8; [[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]], ''The reign of Nabonidus king of Babylon 556-539 B.C.'' (New Haven CT: Yale University Press 1989); A. Kuhrt, “Nabonidus and the Babylonian priesthood”, in M. Beard and J. North (eds.), ''Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world'' (London: Duckworth), 117-55; F. Grant, “Nabonidus, Nabû-šarra-uṣur, and the Eanna temple”, in ''Zeitschrift für Assyriologie'' 81 (1991:37-86); T.G. Lee, “The jasper cylinder seal of Aššurbanipal and Nabonidus’ making of Sîn’s statue”, in Revue d’Assyriologie 87 (1993:131-6); P. Machinist and H. Tadmor, “Heavenly wisdom”, in M.E. Cohen, D.C. Snell and D.B. Weisberg (eds.), ''The tablet and the scroll: Near Eastern studies in honour of William W. Hallo'' (Bethesda MD: CDL Press 1993), 146-51; H. Schaudig, ''Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros’ des Großen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendezschriften: Textausgabe und Grammatik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2001); P.-A. Beaulieu, “Nabonidus the mad king: A reconsideration of his steles from Harran and Babylon”, in M. Heinz and M.H. Feldman (eds.), ''Representations of political power: Case histories from times of change and dissolving order in the ancient Near East'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2007), 137-66.</ref>

==Biography== 

===Ascent=== 
[[Image:Cylinder Nabonidus BM WA91128.jpg|thumb|right|Terracotta cylinder by Nabonidus concerning repairs on the temple of [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]], [[British Museum]]]]
Nabonidus' background is not clear. He said in his inscriptions that he was of unimportant origins.<ref>Collected in Beaulieu 1989.</ref> Similarly, his mother [[Addagoppe of Harran|Addagoppe]], who lived to an old age and may have been connected to the [[temple]] of the [[Lunar Deity|moon-god]] [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]] in [[Harran]], does not mention her family background in her inscriptions. There are two arguments for an [[Assyria]]n background: repeated references in Nabonidus' royal [[propaganda]] and [[imagery]] to [[Ashurbanipal]], the last great [[Neo-Chaldean Empire|Neo-Chaldean]] king; and Nabonidus' originating from, and his special interest in Harran, an Chaldean city and the last stronghold of the Neo-Chaldeans after the fall of [[Nineveh]], their main [[Capital city|capital]].<ref>W. Mayer, "Nabonidus Herkunft", in M. Dietrich and O. Loretz (eds.), ''Dubsar anta-men: Studien zur Altorientalistik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 1998), 245-61; {{cite journal
|quotes =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|date =
|year = 2004
|month =
|title = National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Chaldean Empire and Chaldean Identity in Post-Empire Times
|journal = [[Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies]]
|volume = 18
|issue = 2
|pages = pp. 19
|publisher = JAAS
|location =
|issn =
|pmid =
|doi =
|bibcode =
|oclc =
|id =
|url = http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v18n2/Parpola-identity_Article%20-Final.pdf
|format = PDF
|accessdate =
|laysummary =
|laysource =
|laydate =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
}}
Similarly: {{cite web
|url = http://www.nineveh.com/Assyrians%20after%20Assyria.html
|title = Assyrians after Assyria
|accessdate =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|last =
|first =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
|coauthors =
|date =
|year =
|month =
|work =
|publisher = University of Helsinki, The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project (State Archives of Assyria)
|pages =
|doi =
|archiveurl =
|archivedate =
}}</ref> However, it has been pointed out that Nabonidus' royal propaganda was hardly different from his predecessors, while his Persian successor, [[Cyrus the Great]], also referred to Ashurbanipal in the [[Cyrus cylinder]].<ref>A. Kuhrt, "'Ex oriente lux': How we may widen our perspectives on ancient history", in R. Rollinger, A. Luther and J. Wiesehöfer (eds.), ''Getrennte Wege? Kommunikation, Raum und Wahrnehmung in der alten Welt'' (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Antike 2007), 617-32.</ref> He certainly did not belong to the previous ruling dynasty, the [[Chaldea]]ns, of whom [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] was the most famous member. He came to the throne in 556 BC by overthrowing the young king [[Labashi-Marduk]].

===Reign=== 
Nabonidus took an interest in Babylon's past, excavating ancient buildings and displaying his archeological discoveries in a museum. In most ancient accounts, he is depicted as a royal anomaly. Nabonidus is supposed to have worshiped the moon-god Sîn beyond all the other gods, to have paid special devotion to Sîn's temple in Harran, where his mother was a priestess, and to have neglected the Babylonian primary god, [[Marduk]]. Because of the tensions that these religious reforms generated, he had to leave the capital for the desert oasis of [[Tayma]] in Arabia early in his reign, from which he only returned after many years. In the meantime, his son [[Belshazzar]] ruled from Babylon.

====Contributions==== 
Nabonidus is most revered and is known as the first archaeologist.<ref>{{cite web|last=Watrall|first=Ethan|title=ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2|url=http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf>.|publisher=Anthropology.msu.edu|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu, (both located in Sippar), and the sanctuary of Naram-Sin, the moon god, located in Harran, but he also had them restored to their former glory.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lendering|first=Jona|title=Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar|url=http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html>|publisher=Livius.org|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=K. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=k. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref>).

====Religious policy==== 
Although Nabonidus' personal preference for Sîn is clear, the strength of this preference divides scholars. While some claim that it is obvious from his inscriptions that he became almost [[Henotheism|henotheistic]],<ref>Beaulieu 1989:46-65; Machinist/Tadmor 1993.</ref> others consider Nabonidus to have been similar to other Babylonian rulers, in that he respected the other cults and religions in his kingdom.<ref>Kuhrt 1990.</ref> His negative image could then be blamed on the Marduk priesthood, that resented Nabonidus' long absence from Babylon during his stay in Tayma, during which the important, Marduk-related [[Akitu|New Year (Akītu-)Festival]] could not take place, and his emphasis on Sîn. In any case, there is no sign of the civil unrest during his reign that would have been indicative of trouble.


Part of the propaganda issued by both the Marduk priesthood and Cyrus is the story of Nabonidus taking the most important [[cult]]ic [[statue]]s from southern [[Mesopotamia]] [[hostage]] in Babylon. This seems to be correct: a great number of contemporary inscriptions shows that these statues and their cultic personnel were indeed brought to Babylon just before the Persian attack:


{{Quote|"In the month of [Âbu?] Lugal-Marada and the other gods of the town Marad, Zabada and the other gods of Kish, the goddess Ninlil and the other gods of Hursagkalama visited Babylon. Till the end of the month Ulûlu all the gods of Akkad -those from above and those from below- entered Babylon. The gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and Sippar did not enter."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}


However, modern [[scholarship]] has provided an explanation for this action. In Mesopotamia, [[deity|gods]] were supposed to be housed inside their statues, from where they took care of their cities. But this only happened if they received the right kind of attention. So Nabonidus took special care of these statues and made sure that their cultic personnel had to come along with him.<ref>P.-A. Beaulieu, "An episode in the fall of Babylon to the Persians", ''[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]'' 52 (1993:241-61)</ref> This was a long-standing tradition, too:


{{Quote|"One of the most powerful illustrations of the strength and conviction of image worship in ancient Mesopotamia is probably the treatment of cult statues in times of war. Assyrian and Babylonian sources of the first millennium frequently allude to the removal of divine statues from the temples as the result of a city being conquered. Spoliated statues were usually carried off to the land of the victorious power (Assyria in most known cases) where they remained in captivity until a turn of events would allow them to be restored to their shrines. (...) Rather than incur the capture of their gods and the resulting implications of such capture, namely, that the gods were abandoning the city and calling for its destruction, cities often tried to prevent the transfer of the statues to enemy territory, since continued possession of them in the face of adversity proved that the gods were still protecting and supporting their people and native land. (...) [D]uring the months which preceded the invasion and conquest of Babylonia by the Persians in 539 BC, King Nabonidus ordered a massive gathering of the gods of Sumer and Akkad into the capital. Unlike previous attempts, the gathering ordered by Nabonidus is documented by a number of historical and archival sources." [after this, Beaulieu goes on to discuss these sources in detail]|[[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]] 1993:241-2}}


But this exposed him to criticism by his enemies, notably Cyrus, who was trying to show why he was a better king than Nabonidus had been, and took this as an example of Nabonidus lack of fitness to rule.<ref name=persianpropaganda>Beaulieu 1993; A. Kuhrt, "The Cyrus cylinder and Achaemenid imperial policy", ''[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament]]'' 25 (1983:83-97).</ref> In the words of, again, Beaulieu:


{{Quote|"The returning of the statues to their sanctuaries provided Cyrus with one of his many propagandistic anti-Nabonidus themes. Not content with re-establishing the gods in their residence, he charged the deposed king with having brought them to the capital against their will."|P.-A. Beaulieu 1993:243}}


And in the words of Cyrus himself, as recorded on the Cyrus Cylinder, found in Babylon in 1879:


{{Quote|"As for the gods of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus, to the wrath of the lord of the gods, brought to Babylon, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I (Cyrus) caused them to dwell in peace in their sanctuaries, (in) pleasing dwellings. May all the gods I brought (back) to their sanctuaries plead daily before Bel and Nabu for the lengthening of my days, may they intercede favorably on my behalf."|Cyrus Cylinder, 30-34}}


This is confirmed by the [[Babylonian Chronicles]]:


{{Quote|"From the month of Kislîmu to the month of Addaru, the gods of Akkad which Nabonidus had made come down to Babylon, were returned to their sacred cities."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

====Nabonidus' stay in Tayma==== 
It is not clear yet why Nabonidus stayed in Tayma for so long. His reason for going there seems clear: Tayma was an important oasis, from where lucrative [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian]] [[trade route]]s could be controlled. The Chaldeans before him had already attempted to do the same.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205. On Tayma's importance for trade: C. Edens and G. Bawden, "History of Tayma' and Hejazi trade during the first millennium B.C.", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 32 (1989:48-103).</ref> However, why Nabonidus stayed for so long (probably about ten years, perhaps from 553-543 BC) and why he returned when he did remain unresolved questions. It has been proposed that this was because he did not feel at home in Babylon, which was opposed to his emphasis on Sîn. Regarding his return, this may have had to do with the mounting threat of Cyrus and growing disagreements with Belshazzar, who was relieved of his command directly after Nabonidus had come back, along with a number of administrators.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205.</ref> During his stay, Nabonidus adorned Tayma with a complex of royal buildings, most of which have come to light during recent excavations.<ref>An overview of the history of Tayma, current archaeological work, as well as bibliographical references, are given in {{cite web | title=Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: Tayma | url=http://www.dainst.org/index_3258_en.html | accessdate=2007-10-16}} Also: H. Hayajneh, "First evidence of Nabonidus in the Ancient North Arabian inscriptions from the region of Tayma", ''Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies'' 31 (2001:81-95).</ref>

===The Persian conquest of Babylonia=== 
Different accounts of the fall of Babylon survive. According to the Cyrus Cylinder, the people opened their gates for Cyrus and greeted him as their liberator. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 40-55 prophesied that the Persians would carry off Babylonian women and cultic statues. [[Herodotus]] said that Cyrus defeated the Babylonians outside their city, after which a [[siege]] began. When this took too long, Cyrus diverted the [[Euphrates]], so that his troops could march into the city through the river bed.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 1.188-191</ref> [[Xenophon]] had a similar view, but he did not mention the battle.<ref>Xenophon, ''[[Cyropaedia]]'' 7.5.1-36</ref> Finally, [[Berossus]] claimed that Cyrus beat the Babylonian army, but this time, Nabonidus was supposed to have fled to nearby [[Borsippa]]. There he hid, while Cyrus took Babylon and demolished its outer walls. When Cyrus turned towards Borsippa, Nabonidus soon surrendered.<ref>From the ''Babyloniaca'': [[Fragmente der griechischen Historiker]] 680F9a = [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]], ''[[Against Apion]]'' 1.149-153.</ref>


As these accounts contradict each other, (the Cyrus Cylinder and Isaiah; for the latter, see [[Cyrus (Bible)|Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition]]), [[oral tradition]]s (Herodotus and Xenophon) and conflicting records (Berossus), they are quite confusing. The [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] is more helpful. This is a part of the Babylonian Chronicles, which are concise, factual accounts of historical events, and are therefore considered to be very reliable, although not very informative.<ref>R.J. van der Spek, "{{cite web | title = Review of J.-J. Glassner, ''Mesopotamian chronicles'' (ed. B. Foster) (Leiden: Brill 2004) | url = http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/4467_4512.pdf}}", ''Review of Biblical Literature'' (2005/09).</ref> Regarding the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, this text says:


{{Quote|"In the month of [[Tašrîtu]], when Cyrus attacked the army of Akkad in Opis [i.e., Baghdad] on the Tigris, the inhabitants of Akkad revolted, but he [Cyrus or Nabonidus?] massacred the confused inhabitants. The fifteenth day [12 October], Sippar was seized without battle. Nabonidus fled. The sixteenth day, Gobryas [litt: Ugbaru], the governor of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle. Afterwards, Nabonidus was arrested in Babylon when he returned there. Till the end of the month, the shield carrying Gutians were staying within Esagila but nobody carried arms in Esagila and its buildings. The correct time for a ceremony was not missed.


In the month of Arahsamna, the third day [29 October], Cyrus entered Babylon, green twigs were spread in front of him - the state of peace was imposed upon the city. Cyrus sent greetings to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, installed subgovernors in Babylon."|{{cite web | title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus | url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}


Additionally, a building inscription has been found which mentions the restoration of the [[Enlil]] [[Gate]] of Babylon shortly after its capture. Based on this information, the following reconstruction has been proposed:<ref>P. Briant, ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A history of the Persian Empire'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2002), 50-5, 80-7; G. Tolini, "{{cite web|title = Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylon par Cyrus (octobre 539 av. J.-C.)|url = http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/enligne/arta/pdf/2005.003-Tolini.pdf}}", ''Arta'' (2005/03); A. Kuhrt, "{{cite web|title = Ancient Near Eastern history: The case of Cyrus the Great of Persia|url = http://www.proc.britac.ac.uk/tfiles/237224A/143p107.pdf}}", in H.G.M. Williamson (ed.), ''{{cite web|title = Understanding the history of ancient Israel|url = http://www.britac.ac.uk/pubs/cat/pba143.html}}'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 107-27.</ref> When Cyrus attempted to march into southern Mesopotamia, he was met by the Babylonians near [[Opis]]. In the ensuing battle, the Persians were victorious. This in turn led to the nearby city of [[Sippar]] surrendering. Meanwhile, the Babylonians had withdrawn south to establish a line of defence near the Euphrates that was intended to prevent Cyrus from advancing too far. However, Cyrus' forces did not challenge the Babylonian army. Rather, he sent a small force south along the [[Tigris]] to try to take the capital by surprise. This plan worked: the Persian troops reached Babylon undetected and caught it unawares, meeting only minor resistance near one of its gates. Thus, they were not only able to capture Babylon, but also King Nabonidus.


This left the Babylonian army in an untenable position and it soon surrendered. In the meantime, [[Gubaru|Ugbaru]], the commander of the Persian forces that had captured Babylon, had taken good care that his men would not plunder or otherwise harm the city. He had even made sure that the temple rites continued to be observed. Nonetheless, it still took Cyrus almost a month before he proceeded towards the city. As many Babylonian officials as well as the Babylonian administrative system stayed in place after the transition of power, it has been surmised that this time was spent on negotiations with representatives from the city;<ref>J. Wiesehöfer, "Kontinuität oder Zäsur? Babylon under den Achaimeniden", in J. Renger (ed.), ''Babylon: Focus Mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamheit, Mythos in der Moderne'' (Saarbrücken: SDV 1999), 167-88; M. Jursa, "The transition of Babylonia from the Neo-Babylonian empire to Achaemenid rule", in H. Crawford (ed.), ''Regime change in the ancient Near East and Egypt: From Sargon of Agade to Saddam Hussein'' (New York: Oxford University Press 2007), 73-94.</ref> this is similar to what happened when the Neo-Chaldean king [[Sargon II]] and later [[Alexander the Great]] took the city.<ref>Kuhrt 2007 ("'Ex oriente lux'...").</ref>

===Death=== 
The final fate of Nabonidus is uncertain. Cyrus was known to spare the lives of some kings he had defeated, for example King [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]], who, after his defeat, was allowed to live at King Cyrus's court as an advisor. This is according to [[Herodotus]], who also states that Croesus was first sentenced to death by burning and was only allowed to live after showing his wisdom.<ref>1.86-88</ref> [[Bacchylides]] tells us that [[Apollo]] snatched up Croesus just before the flames were about to burn him, and took him to the [[Hyperboreans]]. In the reference in the Nabonidus Chronicle to a campaign by Cyrus in (possibly) 547 BC, during which a country was taken and its king killed, the text showing the name of the country is damaged, although it may be [[Urartu]].<ref>J. Oelsner, "Review of R. Rollinger, ''Herodots babylonischer logos: Eine kritische Untersuchung der Glaubwürdigkeitsdiskussion'' (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft 1993)", ''Archiv für Orientforschung'' '''46/47''' (1999/2000:378-80); R. Rollinger, "The Median "empire", the end of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great campaign in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)", ''Ancient West & East'' '''7''' (2008:49-63).</ref> Accounts by Berossus and the retrospective Hellenistic Babylonian dynastic prophecies state that he was allowed to retire to live in [[Kermān Province|Carmania]].

==In popular culture== 
*Nabonidus is portrayed by [[Carl Stockdale]] in [[D. W. Griffith]]'s classic 1916 [[silent film]] ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]''.

==See also== 
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Kings of Babylonia]]
*[[Cylinder of Nabonidus]]
*[[Ennigaldi ("Ennigaldi-Nanna")]], daughter
*[[Nabonidus Chronicle]]
*[[Croesus#Apollo.27s intervention|Croesus]]

==References== 
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links== 
*[http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cylinder_of_nabonidus.aspx Cylinder of Nabonidus] at the [[British Museum]].
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar] Translation.
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder-ur.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur] Translation.
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/epigraphy/e_pre-islamic/fig13-lihyanite3.htm Lihyanite inscription of Nabonidus, at Nat. Museum of Natural History site]
*[http://www.nabonidus.org Nabonidus archaeology ]
{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]|before=[[Labashi-Marduk]]|after=[[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)|years=556–539 BC}}
{{S-end}}


{{Persondata 
|NAME = Nabonidus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = King of Babylon
|DATE OF BIRTH =
|PLACE OF BIRTH =
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
[[Category:539 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Chaldean kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian people]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:6th-century BC rulers]]

Translations:Nabonidus/25/en

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This left the Babylonian army in an untenable position and it soon surrendered. In the meantime, [[Gubaru|Ugbaru]], the commander of the Persian forces that had captured Babylon, had taken good care that his men would not plunder or otherwise harm the city. He had even made sure that the temple rites continued to be observed. Nonetheless, it still took Cyrus almost a month before he proceeded towards the city. As many Babylonian officials as well as the Babylonian administrative system stayed in place after the transition of power, it has been surmised that this time was spent on negotiations with representatives from the city;<ref>J. Wiesehöfer, "Kontinuität oder Zäsur? Babylon under den Achaimeniden", in J. Renger (ed.), ''Babylon: Focus Mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamheit, Mythos in der Moderne'' (Saarbrücken: SDV 1999), 167-88; M. Jursa, "The transition of Babylonia from the Neo-Babylonian empire to Achaemenid rule", in H. Crawford (ed.), ''Regime change in the ancient Near East and Egypt: From Sargon of Agade to Saddam Hussein'' (New York: Oxford University Press 2007), 73-94.</ref> this is similar to what happened when the Neo-Chaldean king [[Sargon II]] and later [[Alexander the Great]] took the city.<ref>Kuhrt 2007 ("'Ex oriente lux'...").</ref>

Translations:Nabonidus/19/en

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====Nabonidus' stay in Tayma====
It is not clear yet why Nabonidus stayed in Tayma for so long. His reason for going there seems clear: Tayma was an important oasis, from where lucrative [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian]] [[trade route]]s could be controlled. The Chaldeans before him had already attempted to do the same.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205. On Tayma's importance for trade: C. Edens and G. Bawden, "History of Tayma' and Hejazi trade during the first millennium B.C.", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 32 (1989:48-103).</ref> However, why Nabonidus stayed for so long (probably about ten years, perhaps from 553-543 BC) and why he returned when he did remain unresolved questions. It has been proposed that this was because he did not feel at home in Babylon, which was opposed to his emphasis on Sîn. Regarding his return, this may have had to do with the mounting threat of Cyrus and growing disagreements with Belshazzar, who was relieved of his command directly after Nabonidus had come back, along with a number of administrators.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205.</ref> During his stay, Nabonidus adorned Tayma with a complex of royal buildings, most of which have come to light during recent excavations.<ref>An overview of the history of Tayma, current archaeological work, as well as bibliographical references, are given in {{cite web | title=Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: Tayma | url=http://www.dainst.org/index_3258_en.html | accessdate=2007-10-16}} Also: H. Hayajneh, "First evidence of Nabonidus in the Ancient North Arabian inscriptions from the region of Tayma", ''Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies'' 31 (2001:81-95).</ref>

Translations:Nabonidus/31/en

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{{Persondata 
|NAME = Nabonidus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = King of Babylon
|DATE OF BIRTH =
|PLACE OF BIRTH =
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
[[Category:539 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Chaldean kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian people]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:6th-century BC rulers]]

Translations:Nabonidus/6/en

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===Reign===
Nabonidus took an interest in Babylon's past, excavating ancient buildings and displaying his archeological discoveries in a museum. In most ancient accounts, he is depicted as a royal anomaly. Nabonidus is supposed to have worshiped the moon-god Sîn beyond all the other gods, to have paid special devotion to Sîn's temple in Harran, where his mother was a priestess, and to have neglected the Babylonian primary god, [[Marduk]]. Because of the tensions that these religious reforms generated, he had to leave the capital for the desert oasis of [[Tayma]] in Arabia early in his reign, from which he only returned after many years. In the meantime, his son [[Belshazzar]] ruled from Babylon.

Translations:Third Dynasty of Ur/Page display title/en

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Third Dynasty of Ur

Translations:Nabonidus/8/en

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====Religious policy====
Although Nabonidus' personal preference for Sîn is clear, the strength of this preference divides scholars. While some claim that it is obvious from his inscriptions that he became almost [[Henotheism|henotheistic]],<ref>Beaulieu 1989:46-65; Machinist/Tadmor 1993.</ref> others consider Nabonidus to have been similar to other Babylonian rulers, in that he respected the other cults and religions in his kingdom.<ref>Kuhrt 1990.</ref> His negative image could then be blamed on the Marduk priesthood, that resented Nabonidus' long absence from Babylon during his stay in Tayma, during which the important, Marduk-related [[Akitu|New Year (Akītu-)Festival]] could not take place, and his emphasis on Sîn. In any case, there is no sign of the civil unrest during his reign that would have been indicative of trouble.

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==See also==
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Kings of Babylonia]]
*[[Cylinder of Nabonidus]]
*[[Ennigaldi ("Ennigaldi-Nanna")]], daughter
*[[Nabonidus Chronicle]]
*[[Croesus#Apollo.27s intervention|Croesus]]

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But this exposed him to criticism by his enemies, notably Cyrus, who was trying to show why he was a better king than Nabonidus had been, and took this as an example of Nabonidus lack of fitness to rule.<ref name=persianpropaganda>Beaulieu 1993; A. Kuhrt, "The Cyrus cylinder and Achaemenid imperial policy", ''[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament]]'' 25 (1983:83-97).</ref> In the words of, again, Beaulieu:

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Nabonidus

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{{Quote|"One of the most powerful illustrations of the strength and conviction of image worship in ancient Mesopotamia is probably the treatment of cult statues in times of war. Assyrian and Babylonian sources of the first millennium frequently allude to the removal of divine statues from the temples as the result of a city being conquered. Spoliated statues were usually carried off to the land of the victorious power (Assyria in most known cases) where they remained in captivity until a turn of events would allow them to be restored to their shrines. (...) Rather than incur the capture of their gods and the resulting implications of such capture, namely, that the gods were abandoning the city and calling for its destruction, cities often tried to prevent the transfer of the statues to enemy territory, since continued possession of them in the face of adversity proved that the gods were still protecting and supporting their people and native land. (...) [D]uring the months which preceded the invasion and conquest of Babylonia by the Persians in 539 BC, King Nabonidus ordered a massive gathering of the gods of Sumer and Akkad into the capital. Unlike previous attempts, the gathering ordered by Nabonidus is documented by a number of historical and archival sources." [after this, Beaulieu goes on to discuss these sources in detail]|[[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]] 1993:241-2}}

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{{Quote|"The returning of the statues to their sanctuaries provided Cyrus with one of his many propagandistic anti-Nabonidus themes. Not content with re-establishing the gods in their residence, he charged the deposed king with having brought them to the capital against their will."|P.-A. Beaulieu 1993:243}}

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==Historiography==
Modern perceptions of Nabonidus' reign has been heavily colored by accounts written well after his reign as king of Babylon, most notably by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]] and the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. As a result, Nabonidus has often been described in very negative terms in both modern and contemporaneous scholarship. However, an accumulation of evidence and a reassessment of existing material has caused opinions on Nabonidus and the events that happened during his reign to alter significantly in recent decades.<ref>See for example in W. von Soden, “Kyros und Nabonid: Propaganda und Gegenpropaganda”, in H. Koch and D.N. MacKenzie (eds.), ''Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte der Achämenidenzeit und ihr Fortleben'' (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1983), 61-8; [[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]], ''The reign of Nabonidus king of Babylon 556-539 B.C.'' (New Haven CT: Yale University Press 1989); A. Kuhrt, “Nabonidus and the Babylonian priesthood”, in M. Beard and J. North (eds.), ''Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world'' (London: Duckworth), 117-55; F. Grant, “Nabonidus, Nabû-šarra-uṣur, and the Eanna temple”, in ''Zeitschrift für Assyriologie'' 81 (1991:37-86); T.G. Lee, “The jasper cylinder seal of Aššurbanipal and Nabonidus’ making of Sîn’s statue”, in Revue d’Assyriologie 87 (1993:131-6); P. Machinist and H. Tadmor, “Heavenly wisdom”, in M.E. Cohen, D.C. Snell and D.B. Weisberg (eds.), ''The tablet and the scroll: Near Eastern studies in honour of William W. Hallo'' (Bethesda MD: CDL Press 1993), 146-51; H. Schaudig, ''Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros’ des Großen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendezschriften: Textausgabe und Grammatik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2001); P.-A. Beaulieu, “Nabonidus the mad king: A reconsideration of his steles from Harran and Babylon”, in M. Heinz and M.H. Feldman (eds.), ''Representations of political power: Case histories from times of change and dissolving order in the ancient Near East'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2007), 137-66.</ref>

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==Biography==

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{{Quote|"As for the gods of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus, to the wrath of the lord of the gods, brought to Babylon, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I (Cyrus) caused them to dwell in peace in their sanctuaries, (in) pleasing dwellings. May all the gods I brought (back) to their sanctuaries plead daily before Bel and Nabu for the lengthening of my days, may they intercede favorably on my behalf."|Cyrus Cylinder, 30-34}}

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==External links==
*[http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cylinder_of_nabonidus.aspx Cylinder of Nabonidus] at the [[British Museum]].
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar] Translation.
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder-ur.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur] Translation.
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/epigraphy/e_pre-islamic/fig13-lihyanite3.htm Lihyanite inscription of Nabonidus, at Nat. Museum of Natural History site]
*[http://www.nabonidus.org Nabonidus archaeology ]
{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]|before=[[Labashi-Marduk]]|after=[[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)|years=556–539 BC}}
{{S-end}}

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{{Quote|"In the month of [[Tašrîtu]], when Cyrus attacked the army of Akkad in Opis [i.e., Baghdad] on the Tigris, the inhabitants of Akkad revolted, but he [Cyrus or Nabonidus?] massacred the confused inhabitants. The fifteenth day [12 October], Sippar was seized without battle. Nabonidus fled. The sixteenth day, Gobryas [litt: Ugbaru], the governor of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle. Afterwards, Nabonidus was arrested in Babylon when he returned there. Till the end of the month, the shield carrying Gutians were staying within Esagila but nobody carried arms in Esagila and its buildings. The correct time for a ceremony was not missed.

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However, modern [[scholarship]] has provided an explanation for this action. In Mesopotamia, [[deity|gods]] were supposed to be housed inside their statues, from where they took care of their cities. But this only happened if they received the right kind of attention. So Nabonidus took special care of these statues and made sure that their cultic personnel had to come along with him.<ref>P.-A. Beaulieu, "An episode in the fall of Babylon to the Persians", ''[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]'' 52 (1993:241-61)</ref> This was a long-standing tradition, too:

Third Dynasty of Ur/en

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<languages />

{{
Infobox former country
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name = Third Dynasty of Ur
|common_name = Ur
|
|continent = Asia
|region = [[Mesopotamia]]
|country = Iraq
|era = [[Bronze Age]]
|government_type = [[Monarchy]]
|
|year_start = ''circa'' 2112 B.C.E.
|year_end = ''circa'' 2004 B.C.E.
|life_span = ''circa'' 2112 — ''circa'' 2004 B.C.E.
|
|event1 = [[Lament for Ur]]
|date_event1 = ''circa'' 2004 B.C.E.
|p1 = Gutian dynasty of Sumer
|s1 = Dynasty of Isin
|s2 = Old Elamite Empire
|s3 = Old Assyrian Empire
|s4 = Old Babylonian Empire
|s5 = Old Hittite Empire
|s6 = Middle Kingdom of Egypt
|
|image_map = Map of Ur III.svg
|image_map_caption = Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur. West is at top, North at right.
|
|capital = Ur
|common_languages = Sumerian language
|religion = Sumerian religion
|currency =
|
|leader1 = [[Ur-Nammu]] (first)
|leader2 = [[Ibbi-Sin]] (last)
|year_leader1 = ca. 2047–2030 BC
|year_leader2 = ca. 1963–1940 BC
|title_leader =
|
|stat_year1 =
|stat_area1 =
|
|today = {{flag|Iraq}}
|footnotes =
}}

[[File:Ur III.svg|300px|thumb|Map showing the Ur III state and its sphere of influence]]

The '''Third Dynasty of Ur''', also known as the '''Neo-Sumerian Empire''', refers simultaneously to a [[21st century BC|21st]] to [[20th century BC]] ([[short chronology timeline]]) [[Sumer]]ian ruling dynasty based in the city of [[Ur]] and a short-lived territorial-political state that some historians regard as a nascent [[empire]]. The Third Dynasty of Ur is commonly abbreviated as '''Ur III''' by historians studying the period.

The Third Dynasty of Ur was the last Sumerian dynasty which came to preeminent power in [[Mesopotamia]]. It began after several centuries of control by [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] and [[Gutian dynasty of Sumer|Gutian]] kings. It controlled the cities of [[Isin]], [[Larsa]] and [[Eshnunna]] and extended as far north as the [[Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazira]].

==History==
The Third Dynasty of Ur arose some time after the fall of the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad Dynasty]]. The period between the last powerful king of the Akkad Dynasty, [[Shar-Kali-Sharri]], and the first king of Ur III, [[Ur-Nammu]], is not well documented, but most Assyriologists posit that there was a brief "dark age", followed by a power struggle among the most powerful city-states. On the king-lists, Shar-Kali-Shari is followed by two more kings of Akkad and six in Uruk, however there are no year-names surviving for any of these, nor even any artifacts confirming any of these reigns were historical — save one artifact for [[Dudu of Akkad]] (Shar-Kali-Sharri's immediate successor on the list). Akkad's primacy instead seems to have been usurped by [[Gutian dynasty of Sumer|Gutian]] invaders from the Zagros, whose kings ruled in Mesopotamia for an indeterminate period (124 years according to some copies of the kinglist, only 25 according to others.) An illiterate and nomadic people, their rule was not conducive to agriculture, nor record-keeping, and by the time they were expelled, the region was crippled by severe famine and skyrocketing grain prices. Their last king, [[Tirigan]], was driven out by [[Utu-hengal]] of [[Uruk]], beginning the "Sumerian Renaissance".

Following Utu-Hengal's reign, [[Ur-Nammu]] (originally a general) founded the Third Dynasty of Ur, but the precise events surrounding his rise are unclear. The [[Sumerian King List]] tells us that Utu-hengal had reigned for seven years (or 426, or 26 in other copies), although only one year-name for him is known from records, that of his accession, suggesting a shorter reign.

It is possible that Ur-Nammu was originally his governor. There are two [[stelae]] discovered in [[Ur]] that include this detail in an inscription about Ur-Nammu's life. Some scholars theorize that Ur-Nammu led a revolt against Utu-hengal, deposed him, and seized control of the region through force.

Another hypothesis is that Ur-Nammu was a close relative to Utu-hengal, and the latter had asked the former to rule over the city of Ur in his name. After four years of ruling in Ur, Ur-Nammu rose to prominence as a warrior-king when he crushed the ruler of [[Lagash]] in battle, killing the king himself. After this battle, Ur-Nammu seems to have earned the title 'king of Sumer and Agade.'

The details of how the kingdom switched hands are unclear, but some scholars oppose the idea that Ur-Nammu staged a hostile takeover. For one thing, Ur and Uruk continued to foster, seemingly uninterrupted, a close relationship. Also, Mesopotamian kings tended to disparage publicly any rulers they were able to defeat, but no such evidence exists to show that Ur-Nammu fought against Utu-hengal.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

Ur's dominance over the Neo-Sumerian Empire was consolidated with the famous [[Code of Ur-Nammu]], probably the first such law-code for Mesopotamia since that of [[Urukagina]] of [[Lagash]] centuries earlier.

Many significant changes occurred in the empire under [[Shulgi]]'s reign. He took steps to centralize and standardize the procedures of the empire. He is credited with standardizing administrative processes, archival documentation, the tax system, and the national calendar. He established a standing army of Ur. Shulgi was deified during his lifetime, an honor usually reserved for dead kings.

With the fall of the Ur III Dynasty after an [[Elam]]ite invasion in 2004/1940 BC (middle/short chronology respectively), [[Babylonia]] fell under foreign ([[Amorite]]) influence.

===Timeline of rulers===
Assyriologists employ many complicated methods for establishing the most precise dates possible for this period, but controversy still exists. Generally, scholars use either the conventional (middle) or the low (short) chronologies. They are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Ruler
! Middle Chronology All dates BC
! Short Chronology All dates BC
|-
|[[Utu-hengal]]
| align="center" | 2119–2113
| align="center" | 2055–2048
|-
|[[Ur-Nammu]]
| align="center" | 2112–c. 2095
| align="center" | 2047–2030
|-
|[[Shulgi]]
| align="center" | 2094–2047
| align="center" | 2029–1982
|-
|[[Amar-Sin]]
| align="center" | 2046–2038
| align="center" | 1981–1973
|-
|[[Shu-Sin]]
| align="center" | 2037–2029
| align="center" | 1972–1964
|-
|[[Ibbi-Sin]]
| align="center" | 2028–2004
| align="center" | 1963–1940
|}

== An early code of law ==

One salient feature of Ur III is its establishment of one of the earliest known law-codes, the ''[[Code of Ur-Nammu]]''. It is quite similar to the famous [[Code of Hammurabi|codex of Hammurabi]], resembling its prologue and bodily structure. Extant copies, written in [[Akkadian language|Old Babylonian]], exist from [[Nippur]], [[Sippar]], and also [[Ur]] itself. Although the prologue credits [[Ur-Nammu]], the author is still somewhat under dispute; some scholars attribute it to his son, [[Shulgi]].

The prologue to the law-code, written in the first person, established the king as the beacon of justice for his land, a role that previous kings normally did not play. He claims to want justice for all, including traditionally unfortunate groups in the kingdom like the widower or the orphan.

More legal disputes were dealt with locally by government officials called mayors, although their decision could be appealed and eventually overthrown by the provincial governor. Sometimes legal disputes were publicly aired with witnesses present at a place like the town square or in front of the temple. However, the image of the king as the supreme judge of the land took hold, and this image appears in many literary works and poems. Citizens sometimes wrote letters of prayer to the king, either present or past.

==Culture==

Even though this period is referred to as the Sumerian Renaissance,{{By whom|date=July 2010}} this does not imply that the Ur III kings ignored their Akkadian predecessors in favor of Sumerian culture. Rather, this period witnessed a revival of Sumerian language and literature even while the Ur III kings emphasized their ties to the Akkad Dynasty as well{{Dubious|date=August 2009}}. Sumerian dominated the cultural sphere and was the language of legal, administrative, and economic documents, while signs of the spread of Akkadian could be seen elsewhere. New towns that arose in this period were virtually all given Akkadian names. Culture also thrived through many different types of [[Neo-Sumerian art|art forms.]]

== Industry and commerce ==
[[File:Plan of terrain AO5677 mp3h9127.jpg|thumb|Plan of a real estate of the city of [[Umma]], with indications of the surfaces of the parts. Third Dynasty of Ur, [[Louvre]].]]
The Ur III kings oversaw many substantial state-run projects, including intricate [[irrigation]] systems and centralization of agriculture. An enormous labor force was amassed to work in agriculture, particularly in irrigation, harvesting, and sowing.

Textiles were a particularly important industry in Ur during this time. The textile industry was run by the state. Many men, women, and children alike were employed to produce wool and linen clothing. The detailed documents from the administration of this period exhibit a startling amount of centralization; some scholars have gone so far as to say no other period in Mesopotamian history reached the same level.

Trading was another huge industry. The state employed independent merchants to run such commercial activities through a barter system. A standard system of weights was established to aid this process. Coins made of copper, bronze, gold, or silver were produced in certain, pre-set weights so merchants could easily discern values.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

== Political organization ==

The land ruled by the Ur III kings was divided up into provinces that were each run by a governor (called an [[ensí]]). In certain tumultuous regions, military commanders assumed more power in governing.

Each province contained a redistribution center where provincial taxes, called [[bala taxation|bala]], would all go to be shipped to the capital. Taxes could be payable in various forms, from crops to livestock to land. The government would then apportion out goods as needed, including giving food rations to the needy and funding temples.

== Social system ==

This is an area where scholars have many different views. It had long been posited that the common laborer was nothing more than a serf, but new analysis and documents reveal a possible different picture. Gangs of laborers can be divided into various groups.

Certain groups indeed seem to work under compulsion. Others work in order to keep property or get rations from the state. Still other laborers were free men and women for whom social mobility was a possibility. Many families travelled together in search of labor. Such laborers could amass private property and even be promoted to higher positions. This is quite a different picture of a laborer's life than the previous belief that they were afforded no way to move out of the social group they were born into.

Slaves also made up a crucial group of labor for the state. One scholar estimates [citation missing] that 2/5 of chattel slaves mentioned in documents were not born slaves but became slaves due to accumulating debt, being sold by family members, or other reasons. However, one surprising feature of this period is that slaves seem to have been able to accumulate some assets and even property during their lifetimes such that they could buy their freedom. Extant documents give details about specific deals for slaves' freedoms negotiated with slaveowners.

== Literature ==

Sumerian texts were mass-produced in the Ur III period; however, the word 'revival' to describe this period is misleading because archaeological evidence does not offer evidence of a previous period of decline. Instead, Sumerian began to take on a different form. As the Semitic Akkadian language became the common spoken language, Sumerian continued to dominate literature and also administrative documents. Government officials learned to write at special schools that used only Sumerian literature.

Some scholars believe that the Uruk ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' was written down during this period into its classic [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] form. The Ur III Dynasty attempted to establish ties to the early kings of Uruk by claiming to be their familial relations.

For example, the Ur III kings often claimed Gilgamesh's divine parents, [[Ninsun]] and [[Lugalbanda]], as their own, probably to evoke a comparison to the epic hero.

Another text from this period, known as "The Death of Urnammu", contains an underworld scene in which Ur-Nammu showers "his brother Gilgamesh" with gifts.

==See also==
*[[History of Sumer]]
*[[History of Mesopotamia]]
*[[List of Mesopotamian dynasties]]
*[[Short chronology timeline]]
* [[Neo-Sumerian art|Neo-Sumerian Art]]

==Further reading==
*{{citation |last1=Sallaberger |first1=Walther |last2=Westenholz |first2=Aage |title=Mesopotamien. Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit |series=Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis |volume=160/3 |year=1999 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |location=Göttingen |isbn=3-525-53325-X }}
*{{citation |title=A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC. Second Edition |last=Van de Mieroop |first=Marc |authorlink=Marc Van de Mieroop |year=2007 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Malden |series=Blackwell History of the Ancient World |isbn=978-1-4051-4911-2 }}

==External links==
*[http://cdli.ucla.edu/wiki/doku.php/ur_iii_state_of_research The State of Ur III Research]

{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Third Dynasty Of Ur}}
[[Category:Sumer]]
[[Category:Ancient history of Iraq]]
[[Category:Fertile Crescent]]
[[Category:Ur]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern royal families]]

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As these accounts contradict each other, (the Cyrus Cylinder and Isaiah; for the latter, see [[Cyrus (Bible)|Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition]]), [[oral tradition]]s (Herodotus and Xenophon) and conflicting records (Berossus), they are quite confusing. The [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] is more helpful. This is a part of the Babylonian Chronicles, which are concise, factual accounts of historical events, and are therefore considered to be very reliable, although not very informative.<ref>R.J. van der Spek, "{{cite web | title = Review of J.-J. Glassner, ''Mesopotamian chronicles'' (ed. B. Foster) (Leiden: Brill 2004) | url = http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/4467_4512.pdf}}", ''Review of Biblical Literature'' (2005/09).</ref> Regarding the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, this text says:

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====Contributions====
Nabonidus is most revered and is known as the first archaeologist.<ref>{{cite web|last=Watrall|first=Ethan|title=ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2|url=http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf>.|publisher=Anthropology.msu.edu|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu, (both located in Sippar), and the sanctuary of Naram-Sin, the moon god, located in Harran, but he also had them restored to their former glory.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lendering|first=Jona|title=Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar|url=http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html>|publisher=Livius.org|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=K. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=k. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref>).

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This is confirmed by the [[Babylonian Chronicles]]:

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==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

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'''Nabonidus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|æ|b|ə|ˈ|n|aɪ|d|ə|s}}; [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] '''Nabû-naʾid''', "[[Nabu]] is praised", نابونيد) is the [[List of Kings of Babylon|last king]] of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], reigning from 556–539 BC.

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===Death===
The final fate of Nabonidus is uncertain. Cyrus was known to spare the lives of some kings he had defeated, for example King [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]], who, after his defeat, was allowed to live at King Cyrus's court as an advisor. This is according to [[Herodotus]], who also states that Croesus was first sentenced to death by burning and was only allowed to live after showing his wisdom.<ref>1.86-88</ref> [[Bacchylides]] tells us that [[Apollo]] snatched up Croesus just before the flames were about to burn him, and took him to the [[Hyperboreans]]. In the reference in the Nabonidus Chronicle to a campaign by Cyrus in (possibly) 547 BC, during which a country was taken and its king killed, the text showing the name of the country is damaged, although it may be [[Urartu]].<ref>J. Oelsner, "Review of R. Rollinger, ''Herodots babylonischer logos: Eine kritische Untersuchung der Glaubwürdigkeitsdiskussion'' (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft 1993)", ''Archiv für Orientforschung'' '''46/47''' (1999/2000:378-80); R. Rollinger, "The Median "empire", the end of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great campaign in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)", ''Ancient West & East'' '''7''' (2008:49-63).</ref> Accounts by Berossus and the retrospective Hellenistic Babylonian dynastic prophecies state that he was allowed to retire to live in [[Kermān Province|Carmania]].

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===The Persian conquest of Babylonia===
Different accounts of the fall of Babylon survive. According to the Cyrus Cylinder, the people opened their gates for Cyrus and greeted him as their liberator. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 40-55 prophesied that the Persians would carry off Babylonian women and cultic statues. [[Herodotus]] said that Cyrus defeated the Babylonians outside their city, after which a [[siege]] began. When this took too long, Cyrus diverted the [[Euphrates]], so that his troops could march into the city through the river bed.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 1.188-191</ref> [[Xenophon]] had a similar view, but he did not mention the battle.<ref>Xenophon, ''[[Cyropaedia]]'' 7.5.1-36</ref> Finally, [[Berossus]] claimed that Cyrus beat the Babylonian army, but this time, Nabonidus was supposed to have fled to nearby [[Borsippa]]. There he hid, while Cyrus took Babylon and demolished its outer walls. When Cyrus turned towards Borsippa, Nabonidus soon surrendered.<ref>From the ''Babyloniaca'': [[Fragmente der griechischen Historiker]] 680F9a = [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]], ''[[Against Apion]]'' 1.149-153.</ref>

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{{Quote|"From the month of Kislîmu to the month of Addaru, the gods of Akkad which Nabonidus had made come down to Babylon, were returned to their sacred cities."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

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In the month of Arahsamna, the third day [29 October], Cyrus entered Babylon, green twigs were spread in front of him - the state of peace was imposed upon the city. Cyrus sent greetings to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, installed subgovernors in Babylon."|{{cite web | title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus | url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

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==In popular culture==
*Nabonidus is portrayed by [[Carl Stockdale]] in [[D. W. Griffith]]'s classic 1916 [[silent film]] ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]''.

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Part of the propaganda issued by both the Marduk priesthood and Cyrus is the story of Nabonidus taking the most important [[cult]]ic [[statue]]s from southern [[Mesopotamia]] [[hostage]] in Babylon. This seems to be correct: a great number of contemporary inscriptions shows that these statues and their cultic personnel were indeed brought to Babylon just before the Persian attack:

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{{Quote|"In the month of [Âbu?] Lugal-Marada and the other gods of the town Marad, Zabada and the other gods of Kish, the goddess Ninlil and the other gods of Hursagkalama visited Babylon. Till the end of the month Ulûlu all the gods of Akkad -those from above and those from below- entered Babylon. The gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and Sippar did not enter."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

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Additionally, a building inscription has been found which mentions the restoration of the [[Enlil]] [[Gate]] of Babylon shortly after its capture. Based on this information, the following reconstruction has been proposed:<ref>P. Briant, ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A history of the Persian Empire'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2002), 50-5, 80-7; G. Tolini, "{{cite web|title = Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylon par Cyrus (octobre 539 av. J.-C.)|url = http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/enligne/arta/pdf/2005.003-Tolini.pdf}}", ''Arta'' (2005/03); A. Kuhrt, "{{cite web|title = Ancient Near Eastern history: The case of Cyrus the Great of Persia|url = http://www.proc.britac.ac.uk/tfiles/237224A/143p107.pdf}}", in H.G.M. Williamson (ed.), ''{{cite web|title = Understanding the history of ancient Israel|url = http://www.britac.ac.uk/pubs/cat/pba143.html}}'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 107-27.</ref> When Cyrus attempted to march into southern Mesopotamia, he was met by the Babylonians near [[Opis]]. In the ensuing battle, the Persians were victorious. This in turn led to the nearby city of [[Sippar]] surrendering. Meanwhile, the Babylonians had withdrawn south to establish a line of defence near the Euphrates that was intended to prevent Cyrus from advancing too far. However, Cyrus' forces did not challenge the Babylonian army. Rather, he sent a small force south along the [[Tigris]] to try to take the capital by surprise. This plan worked: the Persian troops reached Babylon undetected and caught it unawares, meeting only minor resistance near one of its gates. Thus, they were not only able to capture Babylon, but also King Nabonidus.

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And in the words of Cyrus himself, as recorded on the Cyrus Cylinder, found in Babylon in 1879:

Nabonidus/en

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{{Infobox monarch
| name = Nabû-naʾid
| title = [[List of kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]
| image = Nabonidus.jpg
| caption = Nabonidus in relief showing him praying to the moon, sun and Venus (British Museum)
| reign = ca. 556 – 539 BC
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Labashi-Marduk]]
| successor = [[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)
| spouse =
| royal house =
| father =
| mother =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| buried =
}}

'''Nabonidus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|æ|b|ə|ˈ|n|aɪ|d|ə|s}}; [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] '''Nabû-naʾid''', "[[Nabu]] is praised", نابونيد) is the [[List of Kings of Babylon|last king]] of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], reigning from 556–539 BC.

==Historiography==
Modern perceptions of Nabonidus' reign has been heavily colored by accounts written well after his reign as king of Babylon, most notably by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]] and the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. As a result, Nabonidus has often been described in very negative terms in both modern and contemporaneous scholarship. However, an accumulation of evidence and a reassessment of existing material has caused opinions on Nabonidus and the events that happened during his reign to alter significantly in recent decades.<ref>See for example in W. von Soden, “Kyros und Nabonid: Propaganda und Gegenpropaganda”, in H. Koch and D.N. MacKenzie (eds.), ''Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte der Achämenidenzeit und ihr Fortleben'' (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1983), 61-8; [[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]], ''The reign of Nabonidus king of Babylon 556-539 B.C.'' (New Haven CT: Yale University Press 1989); A. Kuhrt, “Nabonidus and the Babylonian priesthood”, in M. Beard and J. North (eds.), ''Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world'' (London: Duckworth), 117-55; F. Grant, “Nabonidus, Nabû-šarra-uṣur, and the Eanna temple”, in ''Zeitschrift für Assyriologie'' 81 (1991:37-86); T.G. Lee, “The jasper cylinder seal of Aššurbanipal and Nabonidus’ making of Sîn’s statue”, in Revue d’Assyriologie 87 (1993:131-6); P. Machinist and H. Tadmor, “Heavenly wisdom”, in M.E. Cohen, D.C. Snell and D.B. Weisberg (eds.), ''The tablet and the scroll: Near Eastern studies in honour of William W. Hallo'' (Bethesda MD: CDL Press 1993), 146-51; H. Schaudig, ''Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros’ des Großen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendezschriften: Textausgabe und Grammatik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2001); P.-A. Beaulieu, “Nabonidus the mad king: A reconsideration of his steles from Harran and Babylon”, in M. Heinz and M.H. Feldman (eds.), ''Representations of political power: Case histories from times of change and dissolving order in the ancient Near East'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2007), 137-66.</ref>

==Biography==

===Ascent===
[[Image:Cylinder Nabonidus BM WA91128.jpg|thumb|right|Terracotta cylinder by Nabonidus concerning repairs on the temple of [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]], [[British Museum]]]]
Nabonidus' background is not clear. He said in his inscriptions that he was of unimportant origins.<ref>Collected in Beaulieu 1989.</ref> Similarly, his mother [[Addagoppe of Harran|Addagoppe]], who lived to an old age and may have been connected to the [[temple]] of the [[Lunar Deity|moon-god]] [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]] in [[Harran]], does not mention her family background in her inscriptions. There are two arguments for an [[Assyria]]n background: repeated references in Nabonidus' royal [[propaganda]] and [[imagery]] to [[Ashurbanipal]], the last great [[Neo-Chaldean Empire|Neo-Chaldean]] king; and Nabonidus' originating from, and his special interest in Harran, an Chaldean city and the last stronghold of the Neo-Chaldeans after the fall of [[Nineveh]], their main [[Capital city|capital]].<ref>W. Mayer, "Nabonidus Herkunft", in M. Dietrich and O. Loretz (eds.), ''Dubsar anta-men: Studien zur Altorientalistik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 1998), 245-61; {{cite journal
|quotes =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|date =
|year = 2004
|month =
|title = National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Chaldean Empire and Chaldean Identity in Post-Empire Times
|journal = [[Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies]]
|volume = 18
|issue = 2
|pages = pp. 19
|publisher = JAAS
|location =
|issn =
|pmid =
|doi =
|bibcode =
|oclc =
|id =
|url = http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v18n2/Parpola-identity_Article%20-Final.pdf
|format = PDF
|accessdate =
|laysummary =
|laysource =
|laydate =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
}}
Similarly: {{cite web
|url = http://www.nineveh.com/Assyrians%20after%20Assyria.html
|title = Assyrians after Assyria
|accessdate =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|last =
|first =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
|coauthors =
|date =
|year =
|month =
|work =
|publisher = University of Helsinki, The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project (State Archives of Assyria)
|pages =
|doi =
|archiveurl =
|archivedate =
}}</ref> However, it has been pointed out that Nabonidus' royal propaganda was hardly different from his predecessors, while his Persian successor, [[Cyrus the Great]], also referred to Ashurbanipal in the [[Cyrus cylinder]].<ref>A. Kuhrt, "'Ex oriente lux': How we may widen our perspectives on ancient history", in R. Rollinger, A. Luther and J. Wiesehöfer (eds.), ''Getrennte Wege? Kommunikation, Raum und Wahrnehmung in der alten Welt'' (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Antike 2007), 617-32.</ref> He certainly did not belong to the previous ruling dynasty, the [[Chaldea]]ns, of whom [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] was the most famous member. He came to the throne in 556 BC by overthrowing the young king [[Labashi-Marduk]].

===Reign===
Nabonidus took an interest in Babylon's past, excavating ancient buildings and displaying his archeological discoveries in a museum. In most ancient accounts, he is depicted as a royal anomaly. Nabonidus is supposed to have worshiped the moon-god Sîn beyond all the other gods, to have paid special devotion to Sîn's temple in Harran, where his mother was a priestess, and to have neglected the Babylonian primary god, [[Marduk]]. Because of the tensions that these religious reforms generated, he had to leave the capital for the desert oasis of [[Tayma]] in Arabia early in his reign, from which he only returned after many years. In the meantime, his son [[Belshazzar]] ruled from Babylon.

====Contributions====
Nabonidus is most revered and is known as the first archaeologist.<ref>{{cite web|last=Watrall|first=Ethan|title=ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2|url=http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf>.|publisher=Anthropology.msu.edu|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu, (both located in Sippar), and the sanctuary of Naram-Sin, the moon god, located in Harran, but he also had them restored to their former glory.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lendering|first=Jona|title=Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar|url=http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html>|publisher=Livius.org|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=K. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=k. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref>).

====Religious policy====
Although Nabonidus' personal preference for Sîn is clear, the strength of this preference divides scholars. While some claim that it is obvious from his inscriptions that he became almost [[Henotheism|henotheistic]],<ref>Beaulieu 1989:46-65; Machinist/Tadmor 1993.</ref> others consider Nabonidus to have been similar to other Babylonian rulers, in that he respected the other cults and religions in his kingdom.<ref>Kuhrt 1990.</ref> His negative image could then be blamed on the Marduk priesthood, that resented Nabonidus' long absence from Babylon during his stay in Tayma, during which the important, Marduk-related [[Akitu|New Year (Akītu-)Festival]] could not take place, and his emphasis on Sîn. In any case, there is no sign of the civil unrest during his reign that would have been indicative of trouble.

Part of the propaganda issued by both the Marduk priesthood and Cyrus is the story of Nabonidus taking the most important [[cult]]ic [[statue]]s from southern [[Mesopotamia]] [[hostage]] in Babylon. This seems to be correct: a great number of contemporary inscriptions shows that these statues and their cultic personnel were indeed brought to Babylon just before the Persian attack:

{{Quote|"In the month of [Âbu?] Lugal-Marada and the other gods of the town Marad, Zabada and the other gods of Kish, the goddess Ninlil and the other gods of Hursagkalama visited Babylon. Till the end of the month Ulûlu all the gods of Akkad -those from above and those from below- entered Babylon. The gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and Sippar did not enter."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

However, modern [[scholarship]] has provided an explanation for this action. In Mesopotamia, [[deity|gods]] were supposed to be housed inside their statues, from where they took care of their cities. But this only happened if they received the right kind of attention. So Nabonidus took special care of these statues and made sure that their cultic personnel had to come along with him.<ref>P.-A. Beaulieu, "An episode in the fall of Babylon to the Persians", ''[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]'' 52 (1993:241-61)</ref> This was a long-standing tradition, too:

{{Quote|"One of the most powerful illustrations of the strength and conviction of image worship in ancient Mesopotamia is probably the treatment of cult statues in times of war. Assyrian and Babylonian sources of the first millennium frequently allude to the removal of divine statues from the temples as the result of a city being conquered. Spoliated statues were usually carried off to the land of the victorious power (Assyria in most known cases) where they remained in captivity until a turn of events would allow them to be restored to their shrines. (...) Rather than incur the capture of their gods and the resulting implications of such capture, namely, that the gods were abandoning the city and calling for its destruction, cities often tried to prevent the transfer of the statues to enemy territory, since continued possession of them in the face of adversity proved that the gods were still protecting and supporting their people and native land. (...) [D]uring the months which preceded the invasion and conquest of Babylonia by the Persians in 539 BC, King Nabonidus ordered a massive gathering of the gods of Sumer and Akkad into the capital. Unlike previous attempts, the gathering ordered by Nabonidus is documented by a number of historical and archival sources." [after this, Beaulieu goes on to discuss these sources in detail]|[[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]] 1993:241-2}}

But this exposed him to criticism by his enemies, notably Cyrus, who was trying to show why he was a better king than Nabonidus had been, and took this as an example of Nabonidus lack of fitness to rule.<ref name=persianpropaganda>Beaulieu 1993; A. Kuhrt, "The Cyrus cylinder and Achaemenid imperial policy", ''[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament]]'' 25 (1983:83-97).</ref> In the words of, again, Beaulieu:

{{Quote|"The returning of the statues to their sanctuaries provided Cyrus with one of his many propagandistic anti-Nabonidus themes. Not content with re-establishing the gods in their residence, he charged the deposed king with having brought them to the capital against their will."|P.-A. Beaulieu 1993:243}}

And in the words of Cyrus himself, as recorded on the Cyrus Cylinder, found in Babylon in 1879:

{{Quote|"As for the gods of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus, to the wrath of the lord of the gods, brought to Babylon, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I (Cyrus) caused them to dwell in peace in their sanctuaries, (in) pleasing dwellings. May all the gods I brought (back) to their sanctuaries plead daily before Bel and Nabu for the lengthening of my days, may they intercede favorably on my behalf."|Cyrus Cylinder, 30-34}}

This is confirmed by the [[Babylonian Chronicles]]:

{{Quote|"From the month of Kislîmu to the month of Addaru, the gods of Akkad which Nabonidus had made come down to Babylon, were returned to their sacred cities."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

====Nabonidus' stay in Tayma====
It is not clear yet why Nabonidus stayed in Tayma for so long. His reason for going there seems clear: Tayma was an important oasis, from where lucrative [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian]] [[trade route]]s could be controlled. The Chaldeans before him had already attempted to do the same.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205. On Tayma's importance for trade: C. Edens and G. Bawden, "History of Tayma' and Hejazi trade during the first millennium B.C.", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 32 (1989:48-103).</ref> However, why Nabonidus stayed for so long (probably about ten years, perhaps from 553-543 BC) and why he returned when he did remain unresolved questions. It has been proposed that this was because he did not feel at home in Babylon, which was opposed to his emphasis on Sîn. Regarding his return, this may have had to do with the mounting threat of Cyrus and growing disagreements with Belshazzar, who was relieved of his command directly after Nabonidus had come back, along with a number of administrators.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205.</ref> During his stay, Nabonidus adorned Tayma with a complex of royal buildings, most of which have come to light during recent excavations.<ref>An overview of the history of Tayma, current archaeological work, as well as bibliographical references, are given in {{cite web | title=Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: Tayma | url=http://www.dainst.org/index_3258_en.html | accessdate=2007-10-16}} Also: H. Hayajneh, "First evidence of Nabonidus in the Ancient North Arabian inscriptions from the region of Tayma", ''Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies'' 31 (2001:81-95).</ref>

===The Persian conquest of Babylonia===
Different accounts of the fall of Babylon survive. According to the Cyrus Cylinder, the people opened their gates for Cyrus and greeted him as their liberator. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 40-55 prophesied that the Persians would carry off Babylonian women and cultic statues. [[Herodotus]] said that Cyrus defeated the Babylonians outside their city, after which a [[siege]] began. When this took too long, Cyrus diverted the [[Euphrates]], so that his troops could march into the city through the river bed.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 1.188-191</ref> [[Xenophon]] had a similar view, but he did not mention the battle.<ref>Xenophon, ''[[Cyropaedia]]'' 7.5.1-36</ref> Finally, [[Berossus]] claimed that Cyrus beat the Babylonian army, but this time, Nabonidus was supposed to have fled to nearby [[Borsippa]]. There he hid, while Cyrus took Babylon and demolished its outer walls. When Cyrus turned towards Borsippa, Nabonidus soon surrendered.<ref>From the ''Babyloniaca'': [[Fragmente der griechischen Historiker]] 680F9a = [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]], ''[[Against Apion]]'' 1.149-153.</ref>

As these accounts contradict each other, (the Cyrus Cylinder and Isaiah; for the latter, see [[Cyrus (Bible)|Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition]]), [[oral tradition]]s (Herodotus and Xenophon) and conflicting records (Berossus), they are quite confusing. The [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] is more helpful. This is a part of the Babylonian Chronicles, which are concise, factual accounts of historical events, and are therefore considered to be very reliable, although not very informative.<ref>R.J. van der Spek, "{{cite web | title = Review of J.-J. Glassner, ''Mesopotamian chronicles'' (ed. B. Foster) (Leiden: Brill 2004) | url = http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/4467_4512.pdf}}", ''Review of Biblical Literature'' (2005/09).</ref> Regarding the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, this text says:

{{Quote|"In the month of [[Tašrîtu]], when Cyrus attacked the army of Akkad in Opis [i.e., Baghdad] on the Tigris, the inhabitants of Akkad revolted, but he [Cyrus or Nabonidus?] massacred the confused inhabitants. The fifteenth day [12 October], Sippar was seized without battle. Nabonidus fled. The sixteenth day, Gobryas [litt: Ugbaru], the governor of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle. Afterwards, Nabonidus was arrested in Babylon when he returned there. Till the end of the month, the shield carrying Gutians were staying within Esagila but nobody carried arms in Esagila and its buildings. The correct time for a ceremony was not missed.

In the month of Arahsamna, the third day [29 October], Cyrus entered Babylon, green twigs were spread in front of him - the state of peace was imposed upon the city. Cyrus sent greetings to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, installed subgovernors in Babylon."|{{cite web | title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus | url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}

Additionally, a building inscription has been found which mentions the restoration of the [[Enlil]] [[Gate]] of Babylon shortly after its capture. Based on this information, the following reconstruction has been proposed:<ref>P. Briant, ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A history of the Persian Empire'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2002), 50-5, 80-7; G. Tolini, "{{cite web|title = Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylon par Cyrus (octobre 539 av. J.-C.)|url = http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/enligne/arta/pdf/2005.003-Tolini.pdf}}", ''Arta'' (2005/03); A. Kuhrt, "{{cite web|title = Ancient Near Eastern history: The case of Cyrus the Great of Persia|url = http://www.proc.britac.ac.uk/tfiles/237224A/143p107.pdf}}", in H.G.M. Williamson (ed.), ''{{cite web|title = Understanding the history of ancient Israel|url = http://www.britac.ac.uk/pubs/cat/pba143.html}}'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 107-27.</ref> When Cyrus attempted to march into southern Mesopotamia, he was met by the Babylonians near [[Opis]]. In the ensuing battle, the Persians were victorious. This in turn led to the nearby city of [[Sippar]] surrendering. Meanwhile, the Babylonians had withdrawn south to establish a line of defence near the Euphrates that was intended to prevent Cyrus from advancing too far. However, Cyrus' forces did not challenge the Babylonian army. Rather, he sent a small force south along the [[Tigris]] to try to take the capital by surprise. This plan worked: the Persian troops reached Babylon undetected and caught it unawares, meeting only minor resistance near one of its gates. Thus, they were not only able to capture Babylon, but also King Nabonidus.

This left the Babylonian army in an untenable position and it soon surrendered. In the meantime, [[Gubaru|Ugbaru]], the commander of the Persian forces that had captured Babylon, had taken good care that his men would not plunder or otherwise harm the city. He had even made sure that the temple rites continued to be observed. Nonetheless, it still took Cyrus almost a month before he proceeded towards the city. As many Babylonian officials as well as the Babylonian administrative system stayed in place after the transition of power, it has been surmised that this time was spent on negotiations with representatives from the city;<ref>J. Wiesehöfer, "Kontinuität oder Zäsur? Babylon under den Achaimeniden", in J. Renger (ed.), ''Babylon: Focus Mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamheit, Mythos in der Moderne'' (Saarbrücken: SDV 1999), 167-88; M. Jursa, "The transition of Babylonia from the Neo-Babylonian empire to Achaemenid rule", in H. Crawford (ed.), ''Regime change in the ancient Near East and Egypt: From Sargon of Agade to Saddam Hussein'' (New York: Oxford University Press 2007), 73-94.</ref> this is similar to what happened when the Neo-Chaldean king [[Sargon II]] and later [[Alexander the Great]] took the city.<ref>Kuhrt 2007 ("'Ex oriente lux'...").</ref>

===Death===
The final fate of Nabonidus is uncertain. Cyrus was known to spare the lives of some kings he had defeated, for example King [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]], who, after his defeat, was allowed to live at King Cyrus's court as an advisor. This is according to [[Herodotus]], who also states that Croesus was first sentenced to death by burning and was only allowed to live after showing his wisdom.<ref>1.86-88</ref> [[Bacchylides]] tells us that [[Apollo]] snatched up Croesus just before the flames were about to burn him, and took him to the [[Hyperboreans]]. In the reference in the Nabonidus Chronicle to a campaign by Cyrus in (possibly) 547 BC, during which a country was taken and its king killed, the text showing the name of the country is damaged, although it may be [[Urartu]].<ref>J. Oelsner, "Review of R. Rollinger, ''Herodots babylonischer logos: Eine kritische Untersuchung der Glaubwürdigkeitsdiskussion'' (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft 1993)", ''Archiv für Orientforschung'' '''46/47''' (1999/2000:378-80); R. Rollinger, "The Median "empire", the end of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great campaign in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)", ''Ancient West & East'' '''7''' (2008:49-63).</ref> Accounts by Berossus and the retrospective Hellenistic Babylonian dynastic prophecies state that he was allowed to retire to live in [[Kermān Province|Carmania]].

==In popular culture==
*Nabonidus is portrayed by [[Carl Stockdale]] in [[D. W. Griffith]]'s classic 1916 [[silent film]] ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]''.

==See also==
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Kings of Babylonia]]
*[[Cylinder of Nabonidus]]
*[[Ennigaldi ("Ennigaldi-Nanna")]], daughter
*[[Nabonidus Chronicle]]
*[[Croesus#Apollo.27s intervention|Croesus]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cylinder_of_nabonidus.aspx Cylinder of Nabonidus] at the [[British Museum]].
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar] Translation.
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder-ur.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur] Translation.
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/epigraphy/e_pre-islamic/fig13-lihyanite3.htm Lihyanite inscription of Nabonidus, at Nat. Museum of Natural History site]
*[http://www.nabonidus.org Nabonidus archaeology ]
{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]|before=[[Labashi-Marduk]]|after=[[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)|years=556–539 BC}}
{{S-end}}

{{Persondata 
|NAME = Nabonidus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = King of Babylon
|DATE OF BIRTH =
|PLACE OF BIRTH =
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
[[Category:539 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Chaldean kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian people]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:6th-century BC rulers]]

Translations:Nabonidus/5/en

2015-05-09T09:43:10Z

FuzzyBot: Importing a new version from external source

===Ascent===
[[Image:Cylinder Nabonidus BM WA91128.jpg|thumb|right|Terracotta cylinder by Nabonidus concerning repairs on the temple of [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]], [[British Museum]]]]
Nabonidus' background is not clear. He said in his inscriptions that he was of unimportant origins.<ref>Collected in Beaulieu 1989.</ref> Similarly, his mother [[Addagoppe of Harran|Addagoppe]], who lived to an old age and may have been connected to the [[temple]] of the [[Lunar Deity|moon-god]] [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]] in [[Harran]], does not mention her family background in her inscriptions. There are two arguments for an [[Assyria]]n background: repeated references in Nabonidus' royal [[propaganda]] and [[imagery]] to [[Ashurbanipal]], the last great [[Neo-Chaldean Empire|Neo-Chaldean]] king; and Nabonidus' originating from, and his special interest in Harran, an Chaldean city and the last stronghold of the Neo-Chaldeans after the fall of [[Nineveh]], their main [[Capital city|capital]].<ref>W. Mayer, "Nabonidus Herkunft", in M. Dietrich and O. Loretz (eds.), ''Dubsar anta-men: Studien zur Altorientalistik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 1998), 245-61; {{cite journal
|quotes =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|date =
|year = 2004
|month =
|title = National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Chaldean Empire and Chaldean Identity in Post-Empire Times
|journal = [[Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies]]
|volume = 18
|issue = 2
|pages = pp. 19
|publisher = JAAS
|location =
|issn =
|pmid =
|doi =
|bibcode =
|oclc =
|id =
|url = http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v18n2/Parpola-identity_Article%20-Final.pdf
|format = PDF
|accessdate =
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|laysource =
|laydate =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
}}
Similarly: {{cite web
|url = http://www.nineveh.com/Assyrians%20after%20Assyria.html
|title = Assyrians after Assyria
|accessdate =
|author = Parpola, Simo
|last =
|first =
|authorlink =Simo Parpola
|coauthors =
|date =
|year =
|month =
|work =
|publisher = University of Helsinki, The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project (State Archives of Assyria)
|pages =
|doi =
|archiveurl =
|archivedate =
}}</ref> However, it has been pointed out that Nabonidus' royal propaganda was hardly different from his predecessors, while his Persian successor, [[Cyrus the Great]], also referred to Ashurbanipal in the [[Cyrus cylinder]].<ref>A. Kuhrt, "'Ex oriente lux': How we may widen our perspectives on ancient history", in R. Rollinger, A. Luther and J. Wiesehöfer (eds.), ''Getrennte Wege? Kommunikation, Raum und Wahrnehmung in der alten Welt'' (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Antike 2007), 617-32.</ref> He certainly did not belong to the previous ruling dynasty, the [[Chaldea]]ns, of whom [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] was the most famous member. He came to the throne in 556 BC by overthrowing the young king [[Labashi-Marduk]].