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‎Months

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The '''Babylonian calendar''' was a [[lunisolar calendar]] with years consisting of 12 [[lunar month]]s, each beginning when a new [[lunar phase|crescent moon]] was first sighted low on the western horizon at sunset, plus an [[intercalary month]] inserted as needed by decree. The calendar is based on a Sumerian ([[Ur III]]) predecessor preserved in the '''Umma calendar''' of [[Shulgi]] (c. 21st century BC).

==Months==
The year begins in spring, and is divided into ''{{Unicode|reš šatti}}'' "beginning", ''{{Unicode|mišil šatti}}'' "middle", and ''{{Unicode|kīt šatti}}'' "end of the year". The word for "month" was ''{{Unicode|arḫu}}'' ([[status constructus]] ''{{Unicode|araḫ}}''). That the calendar originates in Babylonian, and not in later Assyrian times is shown by the fact that the chief deity of the Assyrians is assigned the surplus intercalary month. During the 6th century BC [[Babylonian exile]] of the Hebrews, the Babylonian month names were adopted into the [[Hebrew calendar]]. The [[Assyrian calendar]] used in [[Iraq]] and the [[Levant]] also uses many of the same names for its months, such as Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri, and Adar.

<center>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ Babylonian calendar
|-
!Season
!
!Month name
!Presiding deities
!Zodiac sign
! [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] equivalent
! [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] equivalent
|- :3
! rowspan="4" | {{Unicode|Reš Šatti}}
| 1
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Nisānu}}'''
'Month of the Sanctuary'
|[[Anu]] and [[Bel (god)|Bel]]
|KU ([[Aries (astrology)|Aries]])
|[[Nisan]]
|March/April
|-
| 2
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Āru}}'''
'Month of the Bull'
|[[Enki|Ea]]
|([[Taurus (astrology)|Taurus]])
|[[Iyar]]
|April/May
|-
| 3
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Simanu}}'''
|[[Sin (moon)|Sin]]
|BI(KAŠ) ([[Gemini (astrology)|Gemini]])
|[[Sivan]]
|May/June
|-
| 4
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Dumuzu}}'''
'Month of [[Tammuz (Babylonian calendar)|Tammuz]]'
|[[Tammuz (deity)|Tammuz]]
|([[Cancer (astrology)|Cancer]])
|[[Tammuz (Hebrew month)|Tammuz]]
|June/July
|-
! rowspan="4" | {{Unicode|Mišil Šatti}}
| 5
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Abu}}'''
|
|{{Unicode|āru}} ([[Leo (astrology)|Leo]])
|[[Av]]
|July/August
|-
| 6
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Ulūlu}}'''
|[[Ishtar]]
|([[Virgo (astrology)|Virgo]])
|[[Elul]]
|August/September
|-
| 7
| '''{{Unicode|Araḫ Tišritum}}'''
'Month of Beginning' 
(i.e. the start of the 2nd half-year)
|[[Shamash]]
|([[Libra (astrology)|Libra]])
|[[Tishrei]]
|September/October
|-
| 8
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Samna}}'''
'Month of Laying Foundations'
|[[Marduk]]
|([[Scorpio (astrology)|Scorpio]])
|[[Cheshvan]]
|October/November
|-
! rowspan="4" | {{Unicode|Kīt Šatti}}
| 9
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Kislimu}}'''
|[[Nergal]]
|([[Sagittarius (astrology)|Sagittarius]])
|[[Kislev]]
|November/December
|-
| 10
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Ṭebētum}}'''
'Month of the Forthcoming of Water'
|[[Pap-sukkal]]
|{{Unicode|saḫ}} 'ibex' ([[Capricorn (astrology)|Capricorn]]?)
|
[[Tevet]]
|December/January
|-
| 11
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Šabaṭu}}'''
|
|{{Unicode|qā}} ([[Aquarius (astrology)|Aquarius]]?)
|[[Shevat]]
|January/February
|-
| 12
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Addaru}}''' ~ '''{{Unicode|Araḫ Adār}}'''
'Month of Adar'
|[[Erra (god)|Erra]]
|([[Pisces (astrology)|Pisces]])
|[[Adar]]
|February/March
|-
!| Intercalary
| 13
|'''{{Unicode|Araḫ Makaruša Addari}}''' ~ '''{{Unicode|Araḫ Ve-Adār}}'''
|[[Ashur (god)|Ashur]]
| colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | In year 17 of 19-year cycle, the intercalary month was named ''{{Unicode|Araḫ Ulūlu}}''.
|}
</center>

Until the 5th century BC the calendar was fully observational, but beginning about [[499 BC]] the months began to be regulated by a [[lunisolar calendar|lunisolar]] cycle of 19 years equaling 235 months. Although usually called the [[Metonic cycle]] after [[Meton of Athens]] ([[432 BC]]), Meton probably learned of the cycle from the Babylonians. After no more than three isolated exceptions, by [[380 BC]] the months of the calendar were regulated by the cycle without exception. In the cycle of 19 years, the month '''Adaru 2''' was intercalated, except in the year that was number 17 in the cycle, when the month '''Ululu 2''' was inserted. During this period, the first day of each month (beginning at sunset) continued to be the day when a new crescent moon was first sighted—the calendar never used a specified number of days in any month.

==Days==
Counting from the [[new moon]], the Babylonians celebrated every seventh day as a "holy-day", also called an "evil-day" (meaning "unsuitable" for prohibited activities) .{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} On these days officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to "make a wish", {{citation needed|date=December 2013}} and at least the 28th was known as a "rest-day" .{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} On each of them, offerings were made to a different god and goddess, apparently at nightfall to avoid the prohibitions: [[Merodach]] and [[Ishtar]] on the 7th, [[Ninlil]] and [[Nergal]] on the 14th, [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] and [[Shamash]] on the 21st, and [[Enki]] and [[Mah]] on the 28th. Tablets from the sixth-century BC reigns of [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Cambyses]] indicate these dates were sometimes approximate. The [[lunation]] of 29 or 30 days basically contained three [[seven-day week]]s, and a final week of eight or nine days inclusive, breaking the continuous seven-day cycle.<ref name=ere/>

Among other theories of ''[[Shabbat]]'' origin, the ''[[Universal Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' advanced a theory of [[Assyriologist]]s like [[Friedrich Delitzsch]]<ref name=landau>{{cite book|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/sabbath00land/sabbath00land_djvu.txt|title=The Sabbath|author=Landau, Judah Leo|publisher=Ivri Publishing Society, Ltd|accessdate=2009-03-26|location=[[Johannesburg, South Africa]]|pages=2, 12}}</ref> that ''Shabbat'' originally arose from the [[lunar cycle]],<ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=5|page=410|editor=[[Isaac Landman|Landman, Isaac]]|chapter=Holidays|author=Joseph, Max|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=9|page=295|editor=[[Isaac Landman|Landman, Isaac]]|chapter=Sabbath|author=Joseph, Max|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc}}</ref> containing four weeks ending in Sabbath, plus one or two additional unreckoned days per month.<ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=10|page=482|editor=[[Isaac Landman|Landman, Isaac]]|chapter=Week|author=Cohen, Simon|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc}}</ref> The difficulties of this theory include reconciling the differences between an unbroken week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as ''Shabbat'' in any language.<ref name=orr>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tn4PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2630&lpg=PA2630|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia|editor=[[James Orr (theologian)|Orr, James]]|page=2630|chapter=Sabbath: Critical Theories|author=Sampey, John Richard|publisher=Howard-Severance Company|year=1915}}</ref>

The Babylonians additionally celebrated the 19th as a special "evil day", the "day of anger", because it was roughly the 49th day of the (preceding) month, completing a "week of weeks". Sacrifices were offered to [[Ninurta]] and the day dedicated to [[Nintinugga|Gula]], and it may be supposed that prohibitions were strengthened.

Further, reconstruction of a broken tablet seems to define the rarely attested ''Sapattum'' or ''Sabattum'' as the [[full moon]]. This word is cognate or merged with Hebrew ''[[Shabbat]]'', but is monthly rather than weekly; it is regarded as a form of [[Sumer]]ian ''sa-bat'' ("mid-rest"), attested in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as ''um nuh libbi'' ("day of mid-repose"). According to [[Marcello Craveri]], Sabbath "was almost certainly derived from the Babylonian ''Shabattu'', the festival of the full moon, but, all trace of any such origin having been lost, the Hebrews ascribed it to Biblical legend."<ref>{{cite book|author=Craveri, Marcello|title=The Life of Jesus|publisher=Grove Press|year=1967|page=134}}</ref> This conclusion is a contextual restoration of the damaged [[Enûma Eliš]] creation account, which is read as: "[Sa]bbath shalt thou then encounter, mid[month]ly."<ref name=ere>{{cite book|author=Pinches, T.G.|editor=Hastings, James|others=Selbie, John A., contrib|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics|volume=20|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2003|pages=889–891|chapter=Sabbath (Babylonian)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qVNqXDz4CE8C|isbn=978-0-7661-3698-4|accessdate=2009-03-17}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Near East}}
{{div col|cols=2}}
*[[Assyrian calendar]]
*[[Babylonian astrology]]
*[[Babylonian astronomy]]
*[[Hebrew calendar]]
*[[Islamic calendar]]
*[[MUL.APIN]]
*[[Zoroastrian calendar]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Parker, Richard A. and Waldo H. Dubberstein. ''Babylonian Chronology 626 BC.–AD. 75''. Providence, RI: Brown University Press, 1956.
*[http://www.tyndalehouse.com/egypt/ptolemies/chron/babylonian/chron_bab_cal_fr.htm Structure of the Babylonian calendar]
*W. Muss-Arnolt, ''The Names of the Assyro-Babylonian Months and Their Regents'', Journal of Biblical Literature (1892).
*Sacha Stern, "The Babylonian Calendar at Elephantine" in ''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'' 130 (2000) 159–171 ([http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/2000/130pdf/130159.pdf PDF document], 94KB)
*Fales, Frederick Mario, “A List of Umma Month Names”, Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale, 76 (1982), 70–71.
* Gomi, Tohru, “On the Position of the Month iti-ezem-dAmar-dSin in the Neo-Sumerian Umma Calendar”, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, 75 (1985), 4–6.
* Pomponio, Francesco, “The Reichskalender of Ur III in the Umma Texts”, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiastische Archäologie, 79 (1989), 10–13.
* Verderame, Lorenzo, “Le calendrier et le compte du temps dans la pensée mythique suméro-akkadienne”, De Kêmi à Birit Nâri, Revue Internationale de l'Orient Ancien, 3 (2008), 121–134.
* Steele, John M., ed., "Calendars and Years: Astronomy and Time in the Ancient Near East", Oxford: Oxbow, 2007.

==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/tx/tintirbabylon/caledarintro.html The Babylonian Ritual Calendar]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20091026160123/http://geocities.com/astrologymulapin/index.htm The Mul.Apin Tablets]
*[http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/babylon/babycal.htm The Babylonian Calendar (with a date converter based on Parker & Dubberstein (1971))]

{{Calendars}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Babylonian Calendar}}
[[Category:Obsolete calendars]]
[[Category:Babylonian astronomy|Calendar]]
[[Category:Fertile Crescent]]
[[Category:Lunisolar calendars]]

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		+	[[File:List_of_Babylonian_months_by_the_Chaldeans,_2000_BC_2015-07-24_10-24.jpg\|thumbnail\|List of Babylonian months by the Chaldeans, 2000 BC]]
		+
	The '''Babylonian calendar''' was a [[lunisolar calendar]] with years consisting of 12 [[lunar month]]s, each beginning when a new [[lunar phase\|crescent moon]] was first sighted low on the western horizon at sunset, plus an [[intercalary month]] inserted as needed by decree. The calendar is based on a Sumerian ([[Ur III]]) predecessor preserved in the '''Umma calendar''' of [[Shulgi]] (c. 21st century BC).		The '''Babylonian calendar''' was a [[lunisolar calendar]] with years consisting of 12 [[lunar month]]s, each beginning when a new [[lunar phase\|crescent moon]] was first sighted low on the western horizon at sunset, plus an [[intercalary month]] inserted as needed by decree. The calendar is based on a Sumerian ([[Ur III]]) predecessor preserved in the '''Umma calendar''' of [[Shulgi]] (c. 21st century BC).

@@ Line 128: / Line 128: @@
 Among other theories of ''[[Shabbat]]'' origin, the ''[[Universal Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' advanced a theory of [[Assyriologist]]s like [[Friedrich Delitzsch]]<ref name=landau>{{cite book|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/sabbath00land/sabbath00land_djvu.txt|title=The Sabbath|author=Landau, Judah Leo|publisher=Ivri Publishing Society, Ltd|accessdate=2009-03-26|location=[[Johannesburg, South Africa]]|pages=2, 12}}</ref> that ''Shabbat'' originally arose from the [[lunar cycle]],<ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=5|page=410|editor=[[Isaac Landman|Landman, Isaac]]|chapter=Holidays|author=Joseph, Max|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=9|page=295|editor=[[Isaac Landman|Landman, Isaac]]|chapter=Sabbath|author=Joseph, Max|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc}}</ref> containing four weeks ending in Sabbath, plus one or two additional unreckoned days per month.<ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=10|page=482|editor=[[Isaac Landman|Landman, Isaac]]|chapter=Week|author=Cohen, Simon|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc}}</ref> The difficulties of this theory include reconciling the differences between an unbroken week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as ''Shabbat'' in any language.<ref name=orr>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tn4PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2630&lpg=PA2630|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia|editor=[[James Orr (theologian)|Orr, James]]|page=2630|chapter=Sabbath: Critical Theories|author=Sampey, John Richard|publisher=Howard-Severance Company|year=1915}}</ref>
-The Babylonians additionally celebrated the 19th as a special "evil day", the "day of anger", because it was roughly the 49th day of the (preceding) month, completing a "week of weeks". Sacrifices were offered to [[Ninurta]] and the day dedicated to [[Nintinugga|Gula]], and it may be supposed that prohibitions were strengthened.
+The Babylonians additionally celebrated the 19th as a special "evil day", the "day of anger", because it was roughly the 49th day of the (preceding) month, completing a "week of weeks".{{cn|date=April 2015}} Sacrifices were offered to [[Ninurta]] and the day dedicated to [[Nintinugga|Gula]], and it may be supposed that prohibitions were strengthened.{{cn|date=April 2015}}
-Further, reconstruction of a broken tablet seems to define the rarely attested ''Sapattu<sup>m</sup>'' or ''Sabattu<sup>m</sup>'' as the [[full moon]]. This word is cognate or merged with Hebrew ''[[Shabbat]]'', but is monthly rather than weekly; it is regarded as a form of [[Sumer]]ian ''sa-bat'' ("mid-rest"), attested in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as ''um nuh libbi'' ("day of mid-repose"). According to [[Marcello Craveri]], Sabbath "was almost certainly derived from the Babylonian ''Shabattu'', the festival of the full moon, but, all trace of any such origin having been lost, the Hebrews ascribed it to Biblical legend."<ref>{{cite book|author=Craveri, Marcello|title=The Life of Jesus|publisher=Grove Press|year=1967|page=134}}</ref> This conclusion is a contextual restoration of the damaged [[Enûma Eliš]] creation account, which is read as: "[Sa]bbath shalt thou then encounter, mid[month]ly."<ref name=ere>{{cite book|author=Pinches, T.G.|editor=Hastings, James|others=Selbie, John A., contrib|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics|volume=20|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2003|pages=889–891|chapter=Sabbath (Babylonian)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qVNqXDz4CE8C|isbn=978-0-7661-3698-4|accessdate=2009-03-17}}</ref>
+Further, reconstruction of a broken tablet{{cn|date=April 2015}} seems to define the rarely attested ''Sapattu<sup>m</sup>'' or ''Sabattu<sup>m</sup>'' as the [[full moon]]. This word is cognate or merged with Hebrew ''[[Shabbat]]'', but is monthly rather than weekly; it is regarded as a form of [[Sumer]]ian ''sa-bat'' ("mid-rest"), attested in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as ''um nuh libbi'' ("day of mid-repose"). According to [[Marcello Craveri]], Sabbath "was almost certainly derived from the Babylonian ''Shabattu'', the festival of the full moon, but, all trace of any such origin having been lost, the Hebrews ascribed it to Biblical legend."<ref>{{cite book|author=Craveri, Marcello|title=The Life of Jesus|publisher=Grove Press|year=1967|page=134}}</ref> This conclusion is a contextual restoration of the damaged [[Enûma Eliš]] creation account, which is read as: "[Sa]bbath shalt thou then encounter, mid[month]ly."<ref name=ere>{{cite book|author=Pinches, T.G.|editor=Hastings, James|others=Selbie, John A., contrib|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics|volume=20|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2003|pages=889–891|chapter=Sabbath (Babylonian)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qVNqXDz4CE8C|isbn=978-0-7661-3698-4|accessdate=2009-03-17}}</ref>
 ==See also==

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