Changes
{{Infobox monarch
| name = Nabû-naʾid
| image = Nabonidus.jpg
| caption = Nabonidus in relief showing him praying to the moon, sun and Venus (British Museum)
| reign = cac. 556 – 539 556–539 BC
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Labashi-Marduk]]
| successor = [[Nebuchadnezzar IIICyrus the Great]] (Self-proclaimedby conquering Babylonia)| spouse =[[Nitocris of Babylon]] (possibly){{sfn|Dougherty|2008|p=43}}
| royal house =
| father =Nabu-balātsu-iqbi| mother = [[Addagoppe of Harran]]| issue = [[Belshazzar]]<br>[[Ennigaldi (Ennigaldi-Nanna)|Ennigaldi]]<br>[[Nebuchadnezzar III]]?
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Harran]] (the city where his mother was priestess)
| death_date =
| death_place =[[Carmania (region)|Carmania]] (his reported exile place)
| buried =
}}
==BiographyHistoriography== Modern perceptions of Nabonidus' reign have been heavily colored by accounts written well after his reign as king of Babylon, most notably by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]] and the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. As a result, Nabonidus has often been described in very negative terms in both modern and contemporaneous scholarship. However, an accumulation of evidence and a reassessment of existing material has caused opinions on Nabonidus and the events that happened during his reign to alter significantly in recent decades.<!ref>See for example in W. von Soden, “Kyros und Nabonid: Propaganda und Gegenpropaganda”, in H. Koch and D.N. MacKenzie (eds.), ''Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte der Achämenidenzeit und ihr Fortleben'' (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1983), 61–8; [[Paul-Alain Beaulieu|P.-A. Beaulieu]], ''The reign of Nabonidus king of Babylon 556-539 B.C.'' (New Haven CT: Yale University Press 1989); A. Kuhrt, “Nabonidus and the Babylonian priesthood”, in M. Beard and J. North (eds.), ''Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world'' (London: Duckworth), 117-55; T.G. Lee; P. Machinist and H. Tadmor, “Heavenly wisdom”, in M.E. Cohen, D.C. Snell and D.B. Weisberg (eds.), ''The tablet and the scroll:4Near Eastern studies in honour of William W. Hallo'' (Bethesda MD: CDL Press 1993), 146–51; H. Schaudig, ''Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros’ des Großen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendezschriften: Textausgabe und Grammatik'' (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2001); P.-A. Beaulieu, “Nabonidus the mad king: A reconsideration of his steles from Harran and Babylon”, in M. Heinz and M.H. Feldman (eds.), ''Representations of political power: Case histories from times of change and dissolving order in the ancient Near East'' (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2007), 137–66.</ref>
==Biography== ===Ascent=== <!--T:5-->
[[Image:Cylinder Nabonidus BM WA91128.jpg|thumb|right|Terracotta cylinder by Nabonidus concerning repairs on the temple of [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]], [[British Museum]]]]
[[File:UrfaMuseumNabonidSymbole.jpg|thumb|right|The emblems of Venus, Sun, and Moon on the Stele of Nabonidus, found at [[Harran]] ([[Şanlıurfa Museum]]). Note that Nabonidus is closest to the moon.]] ===Reign=== <!--T:6-->Nabonidus took an interest in Babylon's past, excavating ancient buildings and displaying his archeological discoveries in a museum. In most ancient accounts, he is depicted as a royal anomaly. Nabonidus is supposed to have worshiped the moon-god Sîn beyond all the other gods, to have paid special devotion to Sîn's temple in Harran, where his mother was a priestess, and to have neglected the Babylonian primary god, [[Marduk]]. Because of He left the tensions that these religious reforms generated, he had capital and travelled to leave the capital for the desert oasis city of [[Tayma]] in Arabia early in his reign, from which he only returned after many years. In the meantime, his son [[Belshazzar]] ruled from Babylon. ====Contributions====Nabonidus is most revered and is known as the first archaeologist.<ref>{{cite web|last=Watrall|first=Ethan|title=ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2|url=http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf>.|publisher=Anthropology.msu.edu|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu (both located in Sippar), and the sanctuary of Naram-Sin, the moon god, located in Harran, but he also had them restored to their former glory.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lendering|first=Jona|title=Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar|url=http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html>|publisher=Livius.org|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=K. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=k. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref>
====ContributionsReligious policy==== <!--T[[File:7-->Detail of a terracotta cylinder of Nabonidus is most revered and is known as , recording the first archaeologist.<ref>{{cite web|last=Watrall|first=Ethan|title=ANP203-History-restoration work on the temple of-Archaeology-Lecture-2|url=http://anthropologyShamash at Larsa.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2555-539 BCE.pdf>Probably from Larsa, Iraq, housed in the British Museum.jpg|publisher=Anthropology.msu.eduthumb|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits Detail of the temples a terracotta cylinder of Šamaš the sun godNabonidus, recording the warrior goddess Anunitu, (both located in Sippar), and restoration work on the sanctuary temple of NaramShamash at Larsa. 555-Sin539 BC. Probably from Larsa, the moon godIraq, located housed in Harranthe British Museum]]Although Nabonidus' personal preference for Sîn is clear, but the strength of this preference divides scholars. While some claim that it is obvious from his inscriptions that he also had them restored to their former glory.became almost [[Henotheism|henotheistic]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Lendering|first=Jona|title=Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar|url=httpBeaulieu 1989:46–65; Machinist//wwwTadmor 1993.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html>|publisher=Livius.org|accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref> He was also the first others consider Nabonidus to have been similar to date an archaeological artifact other Babylonian rulers, in that he respected the other cults and religions in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for itkingdom.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hurst|first=KKuhrt 1990. Kris|title=The History of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref> Even though His negative image could then be blamed on the Marduk priesthood, that resented Nabonidus' long absence from Babylon during his estimate was inaccurate by about 1500 yearsstay in Tayma, it was still a very good one considering during which the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<ref>{{cite webimportant, Marduk-related [[Akitu|last=Hurst|first=kNew Year (Akītu-) Festival]] could not take place, and his emphasis on Sîn. Kris|title=The History In any case, there is no sign of Archaeology Part 1|url=http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4/5/14}}</ref>)the civil unrest during his reign that would have been indicative of trouble.
Part of the propaganda issued by both the Marduk priesthood and Cyrus is the story of Nabonidus taking the most important [[cult]]ic [[statue]]s from southern [[Mesopotamia]] [[hostage]] in Babylon. This seems to be correct: a great number of contemporary inscriptions shows that these statues and their cultic personnel were indeed brought to Babylon just before the Persian attack:
{{Quote|"In the month of [Âbu?] Lugal-Marada and the other gods of the town Marad, Zabada and the other gods of Kish, the goddess Ninlil and the other gods of Hursagkalama visited Babylon. Till the end of the month Ulûlu all the gods of Akkad -those from above and those from below- entered Babylon. The gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and Sippar did not enter."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}
However, modern [[scholarship]] has provided an explanation for this action. In Mesopotamia, [[deity|gods]] were supposed to be housed inside their statues, from where they took care of their cities. But this only happened if they received the right kind of attention. So Nabonidus took special care of these statues and made sure that their cultic personnel had to come along with him.<ref>P.-A. Beaulieu, "An episode in the fall of Babylon to the Persians", ''[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]'' 52 (1993:241-61)</ref> This was a long-standing tradition, too:
{{Quote|"The returning of the statues to their sanctuaries provided Cyrus with one of his many propagandistic anti-Nabonidus themes. Not content with re-establishing the gods in their residence, he charged the deposed king with having brought them to the capital against their will."|P.-A. Beaulieu 1993:243}}
And in the words of Cyrus himself, as recorded on the Cyrus Cylinder, found in Babylon in 1879:
This is confirmed by the [[Babylonian Chronicles]]:
{{Quote|"From the month of Kislîmu to the month of Addaru, the gods of Akkad which Nabonidus had made come down to Babylon, were returned to their sacred cities."|{{cite web|title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus|url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}
====Nabonidus' stay in Tayma==== <!--T:19-->It is not clear yet why Nabonidus stayed in Tayma for so long. His reason for going there seems clear: Tayma was an important oasis, from where lucrative [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian]] [[trade route]]s could be controlled. The Chaldeans before him had already attempted to do the same.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205149–205. On Tayma's importance for trade: C. Edens and G. Bawden, "History of Tayma' and Hejazi trade during the first millennium B.C.", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 32 (1989:48-10348–103).</ref> However, why Nabonidus stayed for so long (probably about ten years, perhaps from 553-543 553–543 BC) and why he returned when he did remain unresolved questions. It has been proposed that this was because he did not feel at home in Babylon, which was opposed to his emphasis on Sîn. Regarding his return, this may have had to do with the mounting threat of Cyrus and growing disagreements with Belshazzar, who was relieved of his command directly after Nabonidus had come back, along with a number of administrators.<ref>Beaulieu 1989:149-205149–205.</ref> During his stay, Nabonidus adorned Tayma with a complex of royal buildings, most of which have come to light during recent excavations.<ref>An overview of the history of Tayma, current archaeological work, as well as bibliographical references, are given in {{cite web | title=Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: Tayma | url=http://www.dainst.org/index_3258_en.html | accessdate=2007-10-16| deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023032453/http://www.dainst.org/index_3258_en.html | archivedate=2007-10-23 | df= }} Also: H. Hayajneh, "First evidence of Nabonidus in the Ancient North Arabian inscriptions from the region of Tayma", ''Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies'' 31 (2001:81-9581–95).</ref>
===The Persian conquest of Babylonia=== <!--T:20-->Different accounts of the fall of Babylon survive. According to the [[Cyrus Cylinder]], the people opened their gates for Cyrus and greeted him as their liberator. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 40-55 40–55 prophesied that the Persians would carry off Babylonian women and cultic statues. [[Herodotus]] said that Cyrus defeated the Babylonians outside their city, after which a [[siege]] began. When this took too long, Cyrus diverted the [[Euphrates]], so that his troops could march into the city through the river bed.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 1.188-191188–191</ref> [[Xenophon]] had a similar view, but he did not mention the battle.<ref>Xenophon, ''[[Cyropaedia]]'' 7.5.1-361–36</ref> Finally, [[Berossus]] claimed that Cyrus beat the Babylonian army, but , this time, Nabonidus was supposed to have fled to nearby [[Borsippa]]. There he hid, while Cyrus took Babylon and demolished its outer walls. When Cyrus turned towards Borsippa, Nabonidus soon surrendered.<ref>From the ''Babyloniaca'': [[Fragmente der griechischen Historiker]] 680F9a = [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]], ''[[Against Apion]]'' 1.149-153149–153.</ref>
As these accounts contradict each other, (the Cyrus Cylinder and Isaiah; for the latter, see [[Cyrus (Bible)|Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition]]), [[oral tradition]]s (Herodotus and Xenophon) and conflicting records (Berossus), they are quite confusing. The [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] is more helpful. This is a part of the Babylonian Chronicles, which are concise, factual accounts of historical events, and are therefore considered to be very reliable, although not very informative.<ref>R.J. van der Spek, "{{cite web | title = Review of J.-J. Glassner, ''Mesopotamian chronicles'' (ed. B. Foster) (Leiden: Brill 2004) | url = http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/4467_4512.pdf}}", ''Review of Biblical Literature'' (2005/09).</ref> Regarding the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, this text says:
In the month of Arahsamna, the third day [29 October], Cyrus entered Babylon, green twigs were spread in front of him - the state of peace was imposed upon the city. Cyrus sent greetings to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, installed subgovernors in Babylon."|{{cite web | title = Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of the reign of Nabonidus | url = http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon02.html#17}}}}
===Death=== <!--T:26-->The final fate of Nabonidus is uncertain. Cyrus was known to spare the lives of some kings he had defeated, for example King [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]], who, after his defeat, was allowed to live at King Cyrus's court as an advisor. This is according to [[Herodotus]], who also states that Croesus was first sentenced to death by burning and was only allowed to live after showing his wisdom.<ref>1.86-8886–88</ref> [[Bacchylides]] tells us that [[Apollo]] snatched up Croesus just before the flames were about to burn him, and took him to the [[Hyperboreans]]. In the reference in the Nabonidus Chronicle to a campaign by Cyrus in (possibly) 547 BC, during which a country was taken and its king killed, the text showing the name of the country is damaged, although it may be [[Urartu]].<ref>J. Oelsner, "Review of R. Rollinger, ''Herodots babylonischer logos: Eine kritische Untersuchung der Glaubwürdigkeitsdiskussion'' (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft 1993)", ''Archiv für Orientforschung'' '''46/47''' (1999/2000:378-80); R. Rollinger, "The Median "empire", the end of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great campaign in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)", ''Ancient West & East'' '''7''' (2008:49-6349–63).</ref> Accounts by Berossus and the retrospective Hellenistic Babylonian dynastic prophecies state that he was allowed to retire to live in [[Kermān Province|Carmania]].
==In popular culture== <!--T:27-->
*Nabonidus is portrayed by [[Carl Stockdale]] in [[D. W. Griffith]]'s classic 1916 [[silent film]] ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]''.
==See also== <!--T:28-->
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Belshazzar]]
*[[Kings of Babylonia]]
*[[Cylinder of Nabonidus]]
*[[Croesus#Apollo.27s intervention|Croesus]]
==References== <!--T:29-->
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links== <!--T:30-->*[httphttps://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cylinder_of_nabonidus.aspx Cylinder of Nabonidus] at the [[British Museum]].
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar] Translation.
*[http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nabonidus/cylinder-ur.html Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur] Translation.
*[http://www.nabonidus.org Nabonidus archaeology ]
{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]]|before=[[Labashi-Marduk]]|after=[[Nebuchadnezzar III]] (Self-proclaimed)|years=556–539 556–539 BC}}
{{S-end}}
[[Category:539 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Chaldean 6th-century BC rulers]][[Category:AChaldean kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian kings]]
[[Category:Babylonian people]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Nabonidus| ]]
[[Category:Place of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]