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/* Reign and conquests */ Fixed grammar
{{redirect|Hamurabi|the video game|Hamurabi (video game)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{distinguish|Ammurapi}}
{{pp-vandalism|expiry=15:52, 22 March 2018|small=yes}}
{{Infobox person
| name =Hammurabi
| image =P1050771 F0182 Louvre code Hammurabi bas Code Hammourabi Bas-relief Sb8 rwk.JPGjpg| image_size =160px235px| caption =Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from [[Shamash]](or possibly [[Marduk]]). Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of prayer<ref>{{cite |title=Ancient Iraq by |first=Georges |last=Roux, Chapter 17 |author-link=Georges Roux |chapter=The Time of Confusion p. |page=266|url=https://books.google.es/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PA266 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=9780141938257}}</ref> (relief on the upper part of the stele of [[code of Hammurabi|Hammurabi's code of laws]]).| birth_date = ~c. 1810 BC| birth_place = [[Babylonia]]Babylon| death_date = 1750 BC [[middle chronology]]<small>(modern-day [[Jordan]] and [[Syria]])</small><BR>(aged c. 60)
| death_place = Babylon
| death_cause =
| predecessor = [[Sin-Muballit]]
| successor = [[Samsu-iluna]]
| children = [[Samsu-iluna]]
}}
'''Hammurabi''' ({{efn|[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] : {{script|Xsux|𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉}} ''Ḫa-am-mu-ra-bi'', from the [[Amorite language|Amorite]] ''ʻAmmurāpi'', ("the kinsman is a healer"), itself from ''ʻAmmu'', ("paternal kinsman", ) and ''Rāpi'', ("healer"; died c. )}} ({{circa|1810 BC|1750 BC}}) was the sixth [[Amorite]] king of [[Babylon]] (that is, of the [[First Babylonian Dynasty]], the Amorite Dynasty) reigning from 1792 BC to 1750 BC (according to the [[middle chronologyMiddle Chronology]] (1728 BC – 1686 BC ). He was preceded by his father, [[short chronologySin-Muballit]]<ref>See Arnold 2006, [http://books.google.com/books?id=nAemO6HmOgYC&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q=1792&f=false p. vii]who abdicated due to failing health. His date During his reign, he conquered the city-states of birth is around 1810 BC[[Elam]], see for example[[Larsa]], Van De Mieroop 2005[[Eshnunna]], and [http://books.google.com/books?id=GDr49Nd0jh4C&pg=PA1 p. 1[Mari, Syria|Mari]].</ref>). He became ousted [[Ishme-Dagan I]], the first king of the [[BabyloniaAssyria]]n Empire following the abdication of his father, and forced his son [[SinMut-MuballitAshkur]]to pay tribute, who had become very ill and died, extending Babylon's control over thereby bringing almost all of [[Mesopotamia]] by winning a series of wars against neighboring kingdomsunder Babylonian rule.<ref>{{cite book | last = Beck | first = Roger B. | authorlink last= Beck | coauthors first2= Linda |last2=Black, |first3=Larry S. |last3=Krieger, |first4=Phillip C. |last4=Naylor, |first5=Dahia Ibo |last5=Shabaka, | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction |url=https://books.google.es/books?id=pQRlSAAACAAJ | publisher = [[McDougal Littell ]] | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-395-87274-X | oclc = 39762695 }}</ref> Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia at the time of his death, his successors were unable to maintain his empire. Hammurabi is best known for having issued the set of laws called [[Code of Hammurabi|Hammurabi's ]], which he claimed to have received from [[Shamash]], the Babylonian god of justice. Unlike earlier [[Sumer]]ian law codes, such as the [[Codeof Ur-Nammu]], which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first written law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator. It proscribed specific penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish the [[Civil codepresumption of innocence]]. Although its penalties are extremely harsh by modern standards, they were intended to limit what a wronged person was permitted to do in [[Retributive justice|codes retribution]]. The Code of lawHammurabi and the [[Law of Moses]] in the [[recorded historyTorah]]contain numerous similarities, but these are probably due to shared background and oral tradition, and it is unlikely that Hammurabi's laws exerted any direct impact on the later Mosaic ones. Hammurabi was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime. After his death, Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror who spread civilization and forced all peoples to pay obeisance to [[Marduk]], the [[national god]] of the Babylonians. Later, his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy. For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became the frame of reference for all events occurring in the distant past. Even after the empire he built collapsed, he was still revered as a model ruler, and many kings across the Near East claimed him as an ancestor. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century and has since become seen as an important figure in the history of law.
== Reign and conquests ==
[[File:Hammurabi's Babylonia 1.svg|thumb|250px|rightleft|Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in c. {{circa|1792 BC }} and upon his death in c. {{circa|1750 BC]][[File:Royal portrait - Hamurabi - King of Babylon -1900 before JC -.JPG|thumb|left|175px|This bust, known as the "Head of Hammurabi", is now thought to predate Hammurabi by a few hundred years<ref>http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/royal-head-known-head-hammurabi</ref> (''[[Louvre]]'')}}]]Hammurabi was an [[Amorite]] [[First Babylonian Dynasty|First Dynasty]] king of the [[city-state]] of Babylon, and inherited the power from his father, [[Sin-Muballit]], in c. {{circa|1792 BC}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop|2005|p= 1}}</ref> Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite ruled city-states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile [[agriculture|agricultural]] land.<ref>{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop |2005|pp=1–2}}</ref> Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the [[literacy|literate]] classes throughout the [[Middle East]] under Hammurabi.<ref name="VM3">{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop|2005|p=3}}</ref> The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor City State in 1894 BC which controlled little territory outside of the city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger and more powerful kingdoms such as [[Elam]], [[Assyria]], [[Isin]], [[Eshnunna]] and [[Larsa]] for a century or so after its founding. However his father [[Sin-Muballit]] had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian [[hegemony]] and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the minor city-states of [[Borsippa]], [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]], and [[Sippar]].<ref name="VM3" />
Thus Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] situation. The powerful kingdom of [[Eshnunna]] controlled the upper Tigris River while [[Larsa]] controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom of [[Elam]] which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the [[Assyria]]n king [[Shamshi-Adad I]], who had already inherited centuries old Assyrian colonies in [[Asia Minor]], had expanded his territory into the [[Levant]] and central [[Mesopotamia]],<ref>{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop|2005|pp=3–4}}</ref> although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop|2005|p=16}}</ref>
The first few decades of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful. Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|2005|p=43}}</ref> In c. {{circa|1801 BC}}, the powerful kingdom of [[Elam]], which straddled important [[trade]] routes across the [[Zagros Mountains]], invaded the Mesopotamian plain.<ref>{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop|2005|pp=15–16}}</ref> With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of [[Eshnunna]], destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time.<ref>{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop|2005|p=17}}</ref> In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of [[Larsa]].<ref name="VM18">{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop|2005|p=18}}</ref> Hammurabi and the king of [[Larsa]] made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort.<ref name="VM18" /> Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by c. 1763 BC.<ref name="VM31">{{harvnb|Van De Mieroop|2005|p=31}}</ref>
Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with [[Ishme-Dagan I]] of Assyria for control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper hand. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death. [[Mut-Ashkur]], the new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi. In just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.<ref name="Ar45" /> The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign, and of the major city-states in the region, only [[Yamhad|Aleppo]] and [[Qatna]] to the west in the [[Levant]] maintained their independence.<ref name="Ar45" /> However, one stele of Hammurabi has been found as far north as [[Diyarbekir]], where he claims the title "King of the Amorites".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Empire of the Amorites |last=Clay |first=Albert Tobias |author-link=Albert Tobias Clay |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1919 |page=97 |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofamorites00clayuoft}}</ref> Vast numbers of contract [[Clay tablet|tablets]], dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.<ref>{{harvnb|Breasted|2003|p=129}}</ref> These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed [[calendar]], to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.<ref>{{harvnb|Breasted|2003|pp=129–130}}</ref> Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son [[Samsu-iluna]] in c. {{circa|1750 BC}}, under whose rule the Babylonian empire began to quickly unravel.<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|2005|p=42}}</ref>
== Code of laws ==
{{Main|Code of Hammurabi}}
[[File:P1050763 Louvre code Hammurabi face rwk.JPG|thumb|upright=1|[[Code of Hammurabi]] stele. [[The Louvre|Louvre Museum]], Paris]]The Code of Hammurabi is best known for not the [[promulgation]] of a new earliest surviving law code of [[Babylonian law]]: the [[Code ;<ref name="Davies2003">{{cite book|title=Codes of Hammurabi]]. One of the first written laws in the worldand Moses|author=Davies,{{Citation neededW. W.|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|date=October 2013January 2003|isbn=0-7661-3124-6|oclc=227972329}} the Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a [[stele]] and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although </ref> it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered predated by the Elamites and removed to their capital, [[SusaCode of Ur-Nammu]]; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in , the [[IranLaws of Eshnunna]] , and is now in the [[Louvre Museum]] in [[Paris]]. The code Lipit-Ishtar|Code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws, written by [[scribeLipit-Ishtar]]s on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]<ref name="Davies2003"/> Nonetheless, the daily language Code of Babylon, Hammurabi shows marked differences from these earlier law codes and could therefore be read by any literate person in the cityultimately proved more influential.<refname="Breasted2003"/>{{harvnb|Breasted|2003|p<ref name=141}}"Bertman2003"/><ref name="Davies2003"/ref>
The structure Code of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving Hammurabi was inscribed on a specified punishment[[stele]] and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The punishments tended to be very harsh stele was later plundered by modern standardsthe Elamites and removed to their capital, with many offenses resulting [[Susa]]; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in [[Iran]] and is now in death, disfigurement, or the use of the "[[Eye for an Eye|Eye for eye, tooth for toothLouvre Museum]]" (in [[An eye for an eye|Lex TalionisParis]] "Law of Retaliation") philosophy.<ref>Review: The Code code of Hammurabicontains 282 laws, Jwritten by [[scribe]]s on 12 tablets. Dyneley PrinceUnlike earlier laws, The American Journal it was written in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], the daily language of Theology Vol. 8Babylon, No. 3 (Juland could therefore be read by any literate person in the city.<ref name="Breasted2003">{{harvnb|Breasted|2003|p=141}}</ref> Earlier Sumerian law codes had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, 1904), pp. 601-609 Published by: The <ref name="Bertman2003">{{cite book|last1=Bertman|first1=Stephen|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-019-518364-1|page=71|url=https://wwwbooks.jstorgoogle.orgcom/stable/3153895?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC&pg=PA71&dq=adultery+in+ancient+Sumer#v=onepage&q=adultery%20in%20ancient%20Sumer&f=false|ref=harv}}</ref> The code is also one of but the earliest examples Code of Hammurabi instead focused on physically punishing the idea perpetrator.<ref name="Bertman2003"/> The Code of [[presumption Hammurabi was one of innocence]], and it also suggests that the accused and accuser have the opportunity first law code to provide place restrictions on what a wronged person was allowed to do in [[evidenceRetributive justice|retribution]].<ref>Victimology:Theories and Applications, Ann Wolbert Burgess, Albert R. Roberts, Cheryl Regehr,Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2009, p. 103<name="Bertman2003"/ref> However, there is no provision for [[extenuating circumstances]] to alter the prescribed punishment.
=== Significant Example laws in Hammurabi's code ===[[File:Code of Hammurabi Laws.jpg|thumb|Code of Hammurabi Laws, 1750 BC]]
:(Text taken from Harper's translation, [[s:The Code of Hammurabi (Harper translation)|readable on wikisource]])
* § 8 – If any one steal cattle or sheep, or an ass, or a pig or a goat, if it belong to a god or to the court, the thief shall pay thirtyfold therefor; if they belonged to a freed man of the king he shall pay tenfold; if the thief has nothing with which to pay he shall be put to death.
* § 169 – If he have committed a crime against his father sufficiently grave to cut him off from sonship, they shall condone his first (offense). If he commit a crime a second time, the father may cut off his son from sonship.
* § 195 – If a son strike his father, they shall cut off his fingers.
* § 196-201 196–201 – If a man destroy the eye of another man, they shall destroy his eye. If one break a man's bone, they shall break his bone. If one destroy the eye of a freeman or break the bone of a freeman he shall pay one ''mana'' of silver. If one destroy the eye of a man's slave or break a bone of a man's slave he shall pay one-half his price. If a man knock out a tooth of a man of his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth. If one knock out a tooth of a freeman, he shall pay one-third ''mana'' of silver.* § 218-219 218–219 – If a physician operate on a man for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause that man's death; or open an abscess (in the eye) of a man with a bronze lancet and destroy the man's eye, they shall cut off his fingers. If a physician operate on a slave of a freeman for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause his death, he shall restore a slave of equal value.* § 229-232 229–232 – If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and cause the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death. If it cause the death of a son of the owner of the house, they shall put to death a son of that builder. If it cause the death of a slave of the owner of the house, he shall give the owner of the house a slave of equal value. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever it destroyed, and because he did not make the house which he built firm and it collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which collapsed from his own property (i.e., at his own expense).
== Legacy and depictions ==[[File:Hammurabi bas-relief in the U.S. House of Representatives chamber.jpg|thumb|rightupright|The bas-relief of Hammurabi at the United States Congress]]During ===Commemoration after his reign Babylon usurped death===Hammurabi was honored above all other kings of the position second millennium BC{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2005|page=128}} and he received the unique honor of being declared to be a god within his own lifetime.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2005|page=127}} The personal name "most holy cityHammurabi-ili" in southern Mesopotamia meaning "Hammurabi is my god" became common during and after his reign.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2005|page=127}} In writings from its predecessorshortly after his death, Hammurabi is commemorated mainly for three achievements: bringing victory in war, bringing peace, and bringing justice.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2005|page=127}} Hammurabi's conquests came to be regarded as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2005|page=126}} A stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice as a mighty ruler who forces evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship [[NippurMarduk]].{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2005|pages=126-127}} The stele declares: "The people of Elam, for the final time (Babylon had also previously enjoyed this status under the AkkadiansGutium, before it was restored Subartu, and Tukrish, whose mountains are distant and whose languages are obscure, I placed into [Marduk's] hand. I myself continued to Nippur in the "Sumerian renaissance")put straight their confused minds."{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2005|page=126}} A later hymn also written in Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural force for Marduk:{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2005|page=126}}
== See also ==
* [[Cuneiform law]]
* [[Short chronology timeline]]
* [[ManusmritiManusmṛti]]
== Notes Further reading ==* {{Reflistcite book |30emlast=Finet |first=André |title=Le trone et la rue en Mésopotamie: L'exaltation du roi et les techniques de l'opposition, in La voix de l'opposition en Mésopotamie |year=1973 |publisher=Institut des Hautes Études de Belgique |location=Bruxelles |oclc=652257981}}* {{cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=Th. |title=Primitive democracy in Ancient Mesopotomia |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |year=1943 |volume=2 |pages=159–172 |doi=10.1086/370672 |issue=3}}* {{cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=J. J. |title=The Genealogy of the Hammurabi Dynasty |journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies |year=1966 |volume=20 |pages=95–118 |doi=10.2307/1359643 |issue=3|jstor=1359643 }}* {{cite book |last=Hammurabi |title=The Babylonian Laws |year=1952 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |editor1-last=Driver |editor1-first=G.R. |editor2-last=Miles |editor2-first=John C.}}* {{cite book |last=Leemans |first=W. F. |title=The Old Babylonian Merchant: His Business and His Social Position |year=1950 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden}}* {{cite journal |last=Munn-Rankin |first=J. M. |authorlink1=Margaret Munn-Rankin |title=Diplomacy in Western Asia in the Early Second Millennium BC |journal=Iraq |year=1956 |volume=18 |pages=68–110 |doi=10.2307/4199599 |issue=1|jstor=4199599 }}* {{cite book |last=Pallis |first=S. A. |title=The Antiquity of Iraq: A Handbook of Assyriology |year=1956 |publisher=Ejnar Munksgaard |location=Copenhagen}}* {{cite book |last=Richardson |first=M.E.J. |title=Hammurabi's laws : text, translation and glossary |year=2000 |publisher=Sheffield Acad. Press |location=Sheffield |isbn=1-84127-030-X}}* {{cite book |last=Saggs |first=H.W.F. |title=The greatness that was Babylon : a survey of the ancient civilization of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley |year=1988 |publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson |location=London |isbn=0-283-99623-4}}* {{cite book |last=Yoffee |first=Norman |title=The economic role of the crown in the old Babylonian period |year=1977 |publisher=Undena Publications |location=Malibu, CA |isbn=0-89003-021-9}}
== References Notes==* {{cite book|first=Bill T.|last=Arnold|year=2005|title=Who Were the Babylonians?|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=90-04-13071-3|oclc=225281611|ref=harv}}.* {{cite book|first=James Henry|last=Breasted|year=2003|title=Ancient Time or a History of the Early World, Part 1|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=0-7661-4946-3|oclc=69651827|ref=harv}}.* {{cite book|first=Lukas|last=DeBlois|year=1997|title=An Introduction to the Ancient World|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=0-415-12773-4|oclc=231710353|ref=harv}}.* {{cite book|first=Marc|last=Van De Mieroop|year=2005|title=King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|isbn=1-4051-2660-4|oclc=255676990|ref=harvnotelist}}
== Further reading References==* {{cite bookReflist|last24em}} =Finet|first=André |title=Le trone et la rue en Mésopotamie: L'exaltation du roi et les techniques de l'opposition, in La voix de l'opposition en Mésopotamie|yearBibliography=1973|publisher=Institut des Hautes Études de Belgique|location=Bruxelles|oclc=652257981}}* {{cite journal|last=Jacobsen|first=Th.|title=Primitive democracy in Ancient Mesopotomia|journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies|year=1943|volume=2|pages=159–172|doi=10.1086/370672|issue=3refbegin}}* {{cite journalbook |last=FinkelsteinArnold |first=J. JBill T.|title=The Genealogy of the Hammurabi Dynasty|journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies|year=1966|volume=20|pages=95–118|doi=10.2307/1359643|issue=3}}* {{cite book|last=Hammurabi2005 |title=The Babylonian Laws|year=1952Who Were the Babylonians? |publisher=Clarendon Press[[Brill Publishers]] |locationisbn=Oxford|editor190-last=Driver|editor104-first=G.R.13071-3 |editor2-lastoclc=Miles225281611 |editor2-firstref=John C.harv}}* {{cite book|last=LeemansBreasted |first=W. F.|title=The Old Babylonian Merchant: His Business and His Social PositionJames Henry |year=1950|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden}}* {{cite journal|last=Munn-Rankin|first=J. M.2003 |title=Diplomacy in Western Asia in Ancient Time or a History of the Early Second Millennium BCWorld, Part 1 |journalpublisher=IraqKessinger Publishing |yearisbn=19560-7661-4946-3 |volumeoclc=1869651827 |pagesref=68–110|doi=10.2307/4199599|issue=1harv}}* {{cite book|last=PallisDeBlois |first=S. A.|title=The Antiquity of Iraq: A Handbook of AssyriologyLukas |year=1956|publisher=Ejnar Munksgaard|location=Copenhagen}}* {{cite book|last=Richardson|first=M.E.J.1997 |title=Hammurabi's laws : text, translation and glossary|year=2000An Introduction to the Ancient World |publisher=Sheffield Acad. Press|location=Sheffield[[Routledge]] |isbn=10-84127415-03012773-X4 |oclc=231710353 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book|last=SaggsVan De Mieroop |first=H.W.F.Marc |year=2005 |title=The greatness that was King Hammurabi of Babylon : a survey of the ancient civilization of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley|year=1988A Biography |publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson|location=London[[Blackwell Publishing]] |isbn=01-2834051-996232660-4|oclc=255676990 |ref=harv}}* {{cite book|last=Yoffee|first=Norman|title=The economic role of the crown in the old Babylonian period|year=1977|publisher=Undena Publications|location=Malibu, CA|isbn=0-89003-021-9refend}}<<
== External links ==
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* [http://www.louvre.fr/llven/dossiersoeuvre-notices/detail_oal.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673229909&CURRENT_LLV_OAL%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673229909&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=0&bmLocale=en law-code-hammurabi-king-babylon A Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi (Louvre museum)]
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Hammurabi,+King+of+Babylonia | name=Hammurabi}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
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