Difference between revisions of "Chaldean Neo-Aramaic"

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{{Infobox language
 
{{Infobox language
−
|name=Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
+
|name=Chaldean Language
 
|nativename=<span dir="rtl">ܟܠܕܝܐ</span> ''Kaldāyâ'', <span dir="rtl">ܣܘܼܪܲܝܬ</span>&nbsp;''Sōreth''
 
|nativename=<span dir="rtl">ܟܠܕܝܐ</span> ''Kaldāyâ'', <span dir="rtl">ܣܘܼܪܲܝܬ</span>&nbsp;''Sōreth''
 
|pronunciation={{IPA-sem|kalˈdɑjɑ], [sorɛθ|}}
 
|pronunciation={{IPA-sem|kalˈdɑjɑ], [sorɛθ|}}
Line 6: Line 6:
 
|imagecaption= '''Sûret''' in written Syriac <br>(Madnkhaya script)
 
|imagecaption= '''Sûret''' in written Syriac <br>(Madnkhaya script)
 
|imagesize=150px
 
|imagesize=150px
−
|states=[[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]]  
+
|states=[[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]], [[Syria]]
−
|region=[[Iraq]]; [[Mosul]], [[Ninawa]], now also [[Baghdad]] and [[Basra]].
+
|region=[[Iraq]]; [[Mosul]], [[Ninawa]], also [[Baghdad]] and [[Basra]].
−
|speakers=220,000
+
|speakers=3,100,000
 
|date=no date
 
|date=no date
 
|ref=e18
 
|ref=e18
−
|speakers2=(110,000 in Iraq in 1994)
+
|speakers2=(300,000 in Iraq in 2015)
 
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
 
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
 
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
 
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
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'''Chaldean Neo-Aramaic''' is a [[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]] language<ref>[[Arthur John Maclean|Maclean, Arthur John]] (1895). ''Grammar of the dialects of vernacular Syriac: as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, north-west Persia, and the Plain of Mosul: with notices of the vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan and of Zakhu near Mosul''. Cambridge University Press, London.</ref> spoken throughout a large region stretching from the plain of [[Urmia]], in northwestern Iran, to the [[Nineveh plains]], in northern Iraq, together with parts of southeastern Turkey.<ref>Beyer, Klaus; John F. Healey (trans.) (1986). The Aramaic Language: its distribution and subdivisions. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p. 44. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.</ref>
 
'''Chaldean Neo-Aramaic''' is a [[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]] language<ref>[[Arthur John Maclean|Maclean, Arthur John]] (1895). ''Grammar of the dialects of vernacular Syriac: as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, north-west Persia, and the Plain of Mosul: with notices of the vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan and of Zakhu near Mosul''. Cambridge University Press, London.</ref> spoken throughout a large region stretching from the plain of [[Urmia]], in northwestern Iran, to the [[Nineveh plains]], in northern Iraq, together with parts of southeastern Turkey.<ref>Beyer, Klaus; John F. Healey (trans.) (1986). The Aramaic Language: its distribution and subdivisions. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p. 44. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.</ref>
  
−
As of the 1990s, the NENA group had an estimated number of speakers just below 500,000, spread throughout the Middle East and the Chaldean diaspora. More than 90% of these speak either the Chaldean Neo-Aramaic or Assyrian Neo-Aramaic variety, two varieties of Christian Neo-Aramaic or ''Sureth'' which, contrary to what their names suggest, are ''not'' divided among denominational Chaldean church/Assyrian church lines.<ref>Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Northeastern Neo-Aramaic". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.</ref><ref>Blench, 2006. The Afro-Asiatic Languages: Classification and Reference List</ref><ref>Khan 2008, pp. 6</ref> A further number speak [[Central Neo-Aramaic]] dialects, with figures for these ranging from 112,000 to 450,000 speakers.<ref>Turoyo at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013)</ref> Mutual intelligibility with Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Chaldean Neo-Aramaic is considerable, but to a limited degree in some dialects.
+
As of the 1990s, the NENA group had an estimated number of speakers just below 1,500,000, spread throughout the Middle East and the Chaldean diaspora. More than 90% of these speak either the Chaldean Neo-Aramaic or Chaldean Neo-Aramaic variety, two varieties of Christian Neo-Aramaic or ''Sureth'' which, contrary to what their names suggest, are ''not'' divided among denominational Chaldean church/Chaldean church lines.<ref>Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Northeastern Neo-Aramaic". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.</ref><ref>Blench, 2006. The Afro-Asiatic Languages: Classification and Reference List</ref><ref>Khan 2008, pp. 6</ref> A further number speak [[Central Neo-Aramaic]] dialects, with figures for these ranging from 112,000 to 450,000 speakers.<ref>Turoyo at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013)</ref> Mutual intelligibility with Chaldean Neo-Aramaic and Chaldean Neo-Aramaic is considerable, but to a limited degree in some dialects.
  
−
It is extremely [[mutual intelligibility|closely related]] to [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]], both evolving from the same [[Syriac language]], a distinct dialect which evolved in [[Assyria]]<ref>Khan 2008, pp. 6</ref> between the 5th century BC and 1st century AD. The terms ''Syrian'' and thus ''Syriac'' were originally 9th century BC [[Indo-Anatolian]] derivatives of ''Assyrian''.<ref>Tekoglu, R. & Lemaire, A. (2000). La bilingue royale louvito-phénicienne de Çineköy. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions, et belleslettres, année 2000, 960-1006.</ref>
+
It is extremely [[mutual intelligibility|closely related]] to [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]], both evolving from the same [[Aramaic language]], a distinct dialect which evolved in [[Mesopotamia]]<ref>Khan 2008, pp. 6</ref> between the 5th century BC and 1st century AD. The terms ''Syrian'' and thus ''Syriac'' were originally 9th century BC [[Indo-Anatolian]] .<ref>Tekoglu, R. & Lemaire, A. (2000). La bilingue royale louvito-phénicienne de Çineköy. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions, et belleslettres, année 2000, 960-1006.</ref>
  
−
Despite the terms ''Chaldean Neo-Aramaic'' and ''Assyrian Neo-Aramaic'' indicating a separate religious or even ethnic identity, both languages and their native speakers originate from and are indigenous to the same [[Upper Mesopotamia]]n region (what was [[Assyria]] between the 9th century BC and 7th century BC), and both originate directly from Syriac, which was founded in that same region.
+
Despite the terms ''Chaldean Neo-Aramaic'' indicating a separate religious or even ethnic identity, both languages and their native speakers originate from and are indigenous to the same [[Upper Mesopotamia]]n region (between the 9th century BC and 7th century BC), and both originate directly from Aramaic, which was founded in that same region near Syria and Palestine.
  
 
== History ==
 
== History ==
−
The Syriac language in turn, had evolved from [[Imperial Aramaic]], an [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] infused dialect introduced as the [[lingua franca]] of Assyria and the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] by [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] in the 8th century BC. The term ''Syrian'' and thus its derivative ''Syriac'', had originally been 9th century BC [[Indo-Anatolian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] corruptions of ''Assyria''.<ref>Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies 65 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1086/511103.</ref>
+
The Syriac language in turn, had evolved from [[Imperial Chaldean]], an [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] infused dialect introduced as the [[lingua franca]] of Chaldea and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] by [[Chaldean Kings]] in the 10th century BC. The term ''Syrian'' and thus its derivative ''Syriac'', had originally been 9th century BC [[Indo-Anatolian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] corruptions of ''Nenivah".<ref>Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies 65 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1086/511103.</ref>
  
−
Chaldean Neo-Aramaic is one of a number of modern [[Northeastern Aramaic languages]] spoken by the [[Assyrian people]],<ref>Parpola, Simo (2004). "National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies (in English) (JAAS). Vol. 18 (No. 2): pp. 22.</ref><ref>Mar Raphael J Bidawid. The Assyrian Star. September–October, 1974:5</ref> native to the northern region of [[Iraq]] from [[Kirkuk]] through the [[Nineveh plains]], [[Irbil]] and [[Mosul]] to [[Dohuk]], [[Urmia]] in northwestern [[Iran]], northeastern [[Syria]] (particularly the [[Al Hasakah]] region) and in southeast [[Turkey]], particularly [[Hakkari]], [[Bohtan]], [[Harran]], [[Tur Abdin]], [[Mardin]] and [[Diyarbakir]]. The [[Assyrian Christian]] dialects have been heavily influenced by  [[Classical Syriac]], the literary language of the [[Assyrian Church]] and [[Syriac Christianity]] in antiquity.
+
Chaldean Language is one or original languages also called the [[Babylonian language]] spoken by the [[Chaldean people]], native to the northern region of [[Iraq]] from [[Kirkuk]] through the [[Nineveh plains]], [[Irbil]] and [[Mosul]] to [[Dohuk]], [[Urmia]] in northwestern [[Iran]], northeastern [[Syria]] (particularly the [[Al Hasakah]] region) and in southeast [[Turkey]], particularly [[Hakkari]], [[Bohtan]], [[Harran]], [[Tur Abdin]], [[Mardin]] and [[Diyarbakir]]. The [[Chaldean Christian]] dialects have been heavily influenced by  [[Classical Babylonian]], the literary language of the [[Chaldean Church]] and Church of the EAST [[Christianity]] in antiquity.
  
−
Therefore, Christian Neo-Aramaic has a dual heritage: literary [[Syriac]] and colloquial [[Neo-Assyrian]] [[Eastern Aramaic]]. The closely related dialects are often collectively called ''Soureth'', or ''Syriac ''in [[Iraqi Arabic]].
+
Therefore, Christian Neo-Aramaic has a dual heritage: literary [[Chaldean]] and colloquial [[Chaldean]] [[Eastern Aramaic]]. The closely related dialects are often collectively called ''Soureth'', or ''Syriac ''in [[Iraqi Arabic]] which is inaccurate naming.
  
 
[[Jews]], [[Mandeans]] and [[Syriac]]-[[Aramean]] Christians speak different dialects of Aramaic that are often mutually unintelligible.
 
[[Jews]], [[Mandeans]] and [[Syriac]]-[[Aramean]] Christians speak different dialects of Aramaic that are often mutually unintelligible.
  
 
==Dialects==
 
==Dialects==
−
Chaldean Neo-Aramaic and Assyrian Neo-Aramaic are dialects originating in the [[Nineveh Plains]] and [[Upper Mesopotamia]]{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}, a region which was an integral part of ancient Assyria between the 9th century BC and 7th century BC. They have a number of identifiable dialects, each corresponding to one of the Chaldo-Assyrian Christian villages where the language is spoken. The village/dialects are: [[Ankawa]], [[Alqosh]], [[Aqrah]], Mangesh, [[Tel Kaif|Tel Keppe]], [[Bakhdida|Baghdeda]], [[Tel Skuf]], [[Baqofah]], [[Batnaya]], [[Bartella]], Sirnak-Cizre (Bohtan), [[Araden]] and [[Duhok, Iraq|Dahuk]]. {{citation needed|date=March 2015}}
+
Chaldean Neo-Aramaic and Soureth are dialects originating in the [[Nineveh Plains]] and [[Upper Mesopotamia]]{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}, a region which was an integral part of ancient Chaldea between the 9th century BC and 7th century BC. They have a number of identifiable dialects, each corresponding to one of the Chaldo-Chaldean Christian villages where the language is spoken. The village/dialects are: [[Ankawa]], [[Alqosh]], [[Aqrah]], Mangesh, [[Tel Kaif|Tel Keppe]], [[Bakhdida|Baghdeda]], [[Tel Skuf]], [[Baqofah]], [[Batnaya]], [[Bartella]], Sirnak-Cizre (Bohtan), [[Araden]] and [[Duhok, Iraq|Dahuk]]. {{citation needed|date=March 2015}}
  
 
==Phonology==
 
==Phonology==
Line 122: Line 122:
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
*Most of the Chaldean dialects are characterised by the presence of the fricatives {{IPA|/θ/}} (''th'') and {{IPA|/ð/}} (''dh''), which correspond to, respectively, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} in other Assyrian dialects.
+
*Most of the Chaldean dialects are characterised by the presence of the fricatives {{IPA|/θ/}} (''th'') and {{IPA|/ð/}} (''dh''), which correspond to, respectively, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} in other Chaldean dialects.
  
−
*Most Chaldean Neo-Aramaic varieties would use the phoneme of {{IPA|/f/}}, which corresponds to {{IPA|/p/}} in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (besides the Tyari dialect).
+
*Most Chaldean Neo-Aramaic varieties would use the phoneme of {{IPA|/f/}}, which corresponds to {{IPA|/p/}} in Chaldean Neo-Aramaic (besides the Tyari dialect).
  
 
*In some Chaldean dialects {{IPA|/r/}} is realized as {{IPAblink|ɹ}}. In others, it's either a [[Tap consonant|tap]] {{IPAblink|ɾ}} or a [[Trill consonant|trill]] {{IPAblink|r}}.
 
*In some Chaldean dialects {{IPA|/r/}} is realized as {{IPAblink|ɹ}}. In others, it's either a [[Tap consonant|tap]] {{IPAblink|ɾ}} or a [[Trill consonant|trill]] {{IPAblink|r}}.
  
−
*Unlike in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, the [[guttural]] sounds of {{IPAblink|ʕ}} and {{IPAblink|ħ}} are used predominantly in Chaldean varieties - this is a feature also seen in other [[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]] languages.<ref>*Beyer, Klaus (1986). ''The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.</ref>
+
*Unlike in Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, the [[guttural]] sounds of {{IPAblink|ʕ}} and {{IPAblink|ħ}} are used predominantly in Chaldean varieties - this is a feature also seen in other [[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]] languages.<ref>*Beyer, Klaus (1986). ''The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.</ref>
  
 
===Vowels===
 
===Vowels===
Line 161: Line 161:
 
*[[Aramaic language]]
 
*[[Aramaic language]]
 
*[[Eastern Aramaic languages]]
 
*[[Eastern Aramaic languages]]
−
*[[Syriac language]]
+
*[[Chaldean language]]
−
*[[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]]
+
*[[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]]
 
*[[Chaldean Catholic Church]]
 
*[[Chaldean Catholic Church]]
 
*[[Syriac Orthodox Church]]
 
*[[Syriac Orthodox Church]]
Line 178: Line 178:
 
* [[Wolfhart Heinrichs|Heinrichs, Wolfhart]] (ed.) (1990). ''Studies in Neo-Aramaic''. Scholars Press: Atlanta, Georgia. ISBN 1-55540-430-8.
 
* [[Wolfhart Heinrichs|Heinrichs, Wolfhart]] (ed.) (1990). ''Studies in Neo-Aramaic''. Scholars Press: Atlanta, Georgia. ISBN 1-55540-430-8.
 
* [[Arthur John Maclean|Maclean, Arthur John]] (1895). ''Grammar of the dialects of vernacular Syriac: as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, north-west Persia, and the Plain of Mosul: with notices of the vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan and of Zakhu near Mosul''. Cambridge University Press, London.
 
* [[Arthur John Maclean|Maclean, Arthur John]] (1895). ''Grammar of the dialects of vernacular Syriac: as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, north-west Persia, and the Plain of Mosul: with notices of the vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan and of Zakhu near Mosul''. Cambridge University Press, London.
−
 
−
==See also==
 
−
*[[Low Winter Sun#Cast|Dani Khalil]] - a Chaldean homicide detective in ''Low Winter Sun''
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==

Latest revision as of 09:57, 19 November 2023

Chaldean Language
ܟܠܕܝܐ Kaldāyâ, ܣܘܼܪܲܝܬ Sōreth
File:Sureth.png
Sûret in written Syriac
(Madnkhaya script)
Pronunciation [kalˈdɑjɑ], [sorɛθ]
Native to Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Syria
Region Iraq; Mosul, Ninawa, also Baghdad and Basra.
Native speakers
 unknown (undated figure of 3,100,000)[1]
(300,000 in Iraq in 2015)
Syriac (Madenhaya alphabet)
Language codes
ISO 639-3 cld
Glottolog chal1275[2]

Chaldean Neo-Aramaic is a Northeastern Neo-Aramaic language[3] spoken throughout a large region stretching from the plain of Urmia, in northwestern Iran, to the Nineveh plains, in northern Iraq, together with parts of southeastern Turkey.[4]

As of the 1990s, the NENA group had an estimated number of speakers just below 1,500,000, spread throughout the Middle East and the Chaldean diaspora. More than 90% of these speak either the Chaldean Neo-Aramaic or Chaldean Neo-Aramaic variety, two varieties of Christian Neo-Aramaic or Sureth which, contrary to what their names suggest, are not divided among denominational Chaldean church/Chaldean church lines.[5][6][7] A further number speak Central Neo-Aramaic dialects, with figures for these ranging from 112,000 to 450,000 speakers.[8] Mutual intelligibility with Chaldean Neo-Aramaic and Chaldean Neo-Aramaic is considerable, but to a limited degree in some dialects.

It is extremely closely related to Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, both evolving from the same Aramaic language, a distinct dialect which evolved in Mesopotamia[9] between the 5th century BC and 1st century AD. The terms Syrian and thus Syriac were originally 9th century BC Indo-Anatolian .[10]

Despite the terms Chaldean Neo-Aramaic indicating a separate religious or even ethnic identity, both languages and their native speakers originate from and are indigenous to the same Upper Mesopotamian region (between the 9th century BC and 7th century BC), and both originate directly from Aramaic, which was founded in that same region near Syria and Palestine.

History

The Syriac language in turn, had evolved from Imperial Chaldean, an Akkadian infused dialect introduced as the lingua franca of Chaldea and the Neo-Babylonian Empire by Chaldean Kings in the 10th century BC. The term Syrian and thus its derivative Syriac, had originally been 9th century BC Indo-Anatolian and Greek corruptions of Nenivah".[11]

Chaldean Language is one or original languages also called the Babylonian language spoken by the Chaldean people, native to the northern region of Iraq from Kirkuk through the Nineveh plains, Irbil and Mosul to Dohuk, Urmia in northwestern Iran, northeastern Syria (particularly the Al Hasakah region) and in southeast Turkey, particularly Hakkari, Bohtan, Harran, Tur Abdin, Mardin and Diyarbakir. The Chaldean Christian dialects have been heavily influenced by Classical Babylonian, the literary language of the Chaldean Church and Church of the EAST Christianity in antiquity.

Therefore, Christian Neo-Aramaic has a dual heritage: literary Chaldean and colloquial Chaldean Eastern Aramaic. The closely related dialects are often collectively called Soureth, or Syriac in Iraqi Arabic which is inaccurate naming.

Jews, Mandeans and Syriac-Aramean Christians speak different dialects of Aramaic that are often mutually unintelligible.

Dialects

Chaldean Neo-Aramaic and Soureth are dialects originating in the Nineveh Plains and Upper Mesopotamia[citation needed], a region which was an integral part of ancient Chaldea between the 9th century BC and 7th century BC. They have a number of identifiable dialects, each corresponding to one of the Chaldo-Chaldean Christian villages where the language is spoken. The village/dialects are: Ankawa, Alqosh, Aqrah, Mangesh, Tel Keppe, Baghdeda, Tel Skuf, Baqofah, Batnaya, Bartella, Sirnak-Cizre (Bohtan), Araden and Dahuk.[citation needed]

Phonology

Consonants

Table of Chaldean Neo-Aramaic consonant phonemes
Labial Dental/
Alveolar 		Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
plain emphatic
Nasal m n
Plosive b tˤ k ɡ q ʔ
Fricative sibilant s z sˤ ʃ
non-sibilant f θ ð x ɣ ħ ʕ h
Approximant w l j
Rhotic r
  • Most of the Chaldean dialects are characterised by the presence of the fricatives /θ/ (th) and /ð/ (dh), which correspond to, respectively, /t/ and /d/ in other Chaldean dialects.
  • Most Chaldean Neo-Aramaic varieties would use the phoneme of /f/, which corresponds to /p/ in Chaldean Neo-Aramaic (besides the Tyari dialect).
  • In some Chaldean dialects /r/ is realized as [ɹ]. In others, it's either a tap [ɾ] or a trill [r].

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i
Mid ɛ ə ɔ
Open a ɑ

Script

Chaldean Neo-Aramaic is written in the Madenhaya version of the Syriac alphabet, which is also used for classical Syriac. The School of Alqosh produced religious poetry in the colloquial Neo-Aramaic rather than classical Syriac in the 17th century prior to the founding of the Chaldean Catholic Church and the naming of the dialect as Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, and the Dominican Press in Mosul has produced a number of books in the language.

See also

Notes

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References

  • Heinrichs, Wolfhart (ed.) (1990). Studies in Neo-Aramaic. Scholars Press: Atlanta, Georgia. ISBN 1-55540-430-8.
  • Maclean, Arthur John (1895). Grammar of the dialects of vernacular Syriac: as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, north-west Persia, and the Plain of Mosul: with notices of the vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan and of Zakhu near Mosul. Cambridge University Press, London.

External links

Christian
Jewish
Other
  1. ↑ Chaldean Language at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  2. ↑ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Chaldean Neo-Aramaic". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 
  3. ↑ Maclean, Arthur John (1895). Grammar of the dialects of vernacular Syriac: as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, north-west Persia, and the Plain of Mosul: with notices of the vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan and of Zakhu near Mosul. Cambridge University Press, London.
  4. ↑ Beyer, Klaus; John F. Healey (trans.) (1986). The Aramaic Language: its distribution and subdivisions. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p. 44. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.
  5. ↑ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Northeastern Neo-Aramaic". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
  6. ↑ Blench, 2006. The Afro-Asiatic Languages: Classification and Reference List
  7. ↑ Khan 2008, pp. 6
  8. ↑ Turoyo at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013)
  9. ↑ Khan 2008, pp. 6
  10. ↑ Tekoglu, R. & Lemaire, A. (2000). La bilingue royale louvito-phénicienne de Çineköy. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions, et belleslettres, année 2000, 960-1006.
  11. ↑ Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies 65 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1086/511103.
  12. ↑ *Beyer, Klaus (1986). The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.
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